Culture in sociology explained for A-Level
Culture in sociology is the shared way of life of a group of people: Their values, norms, language, beliefs, customs, knowledge and material objects passed from one generation to the next. It is one of the foundational concepts in AQA A-Level Sociology because almost every topic, from family to crime to education, builds on it.
This guide explains the AQA definition examiners reward, walks through the seven types of culture most commonly examined (high, popular, mass, folk, sub, global and consumer), and shows how to evaluate culture from functionalist, Marxist, feminist and postmodernist angles.
Shared way of life
Culture covers everything from language and food to laws and humour. It is learned, not biological, and it changes over time.
Seven types to know
AQA expects fluency with high, popular, mass, folk, sub, global and consumer culture, plus the debates between them.
Four perspectives to apply
Functionalism, Marxism, feminism and postmodernism each explain culture differently. You will need at least two for top-band answers.
The AQA definition of culture
Examiners reward the formal definition: Culture is the shared values, norms, beliefs, customs, language and material objects of a group or society, transmitted through socialisation. The word "shared" matters because it separates culture from individual taste, and "transmitted through socialisation" matters because it tells you culture is learned, not inherited.
The sociologist Ralph Linton (1945) described culture as "the way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation." Using a named theorist in your definition is a quick way to pick up AO1 knowledge marks.
Culture vs society Do not confuse the two in your essays. Society refers to the group of people; culture refers to the way that group lives. Two societies can share elements of culture (e.g. the English language across the UK and US), and one society can contain many cultures (e.g. the UK's many subcultures and ethnic cultures).
The seven types of culture most commonly examined
AQA expects you to define, give an example for and evaluate each of the seven main types of culture. The table below gives you the working definitions you can reuse in Paper 2.
| Type of culture | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| High culture | Cultural products seen as superior, often linked to elites and requiring cultural capital to appreciate | Opera, ballet, classical music, fine art |
| Popular culture | Cultural products consumed by the masses, often commercial and accessible | Pop music, blockbuster films, mainstream TV |
| Mass culture | A Marxist term for culture mass-produced for profit, criticised as shallow and standardised | Reality TV, fast fashion, chart pop |
| Folk culture | Traditional culture rooted in local communities and passed down informally | Morris dancing, folk songs, regional dialects |
| Subculture | A smaller cultural group within wider society with distinct norms and values | Goths, hipsters, gamers, Rastafarians |
| Global culture | Shared cultural products and practices that cross national borders | Hollywood films, McDonald's, K-pop, Premier League football |
| Consumer culture | A culture organised around buying and displaying goods to express identity | Designer brands, influencer marketing, Black Friday |
High culture vs popular culture
The high-popular divide is the AQA classic. High culture is associated with elites and requires what Pierre Bourdieu (1984) called cultural capital, the knowledge and tastes that mark someone as middle or upper class. Popular culture is the culture of the masses, often commercialised and accessible without specialist knowledge.
Postmodernists like Strinati (1995) argue the divide has collapsed. The Mona Lisa appears on phone cases, Shakespeare is rebooted as a teen drama, and opera singers headline football tournaments. Pick-and-mix consumption blurs what is high and what is popular.
Use a named theorist in every paragraph For culture questions, four flexible names cover most ground: Bourdieu on cultural capital, Strinati on postmodern blurring, the Frankfurt School on mass culture and Hebdige on subcultures. Working at least one of them into every paragraph is a reliable way to pick up AO1 marks alongside your analysis.
Subcultures and identity
A subculture is a group within wider society that shares its own norms, values, language or style. Dick Hebdige (1979) argued working-class youth subcultures like punks and skinheads were a form of symbolic resistance against dominant middle-class culture. The safety pins and torn clothes were not random; they were a statement.
Not all subcultures are about resistance. Some form around shared interests (e.g. cosplayers, gym culture), some around ethnicity or religion (e.g. British Sikh culture), and some around occupation (e.g. military culture). Postmodernists argue subcultures have become more fluid and that people now move between them rather than commit to one identity.
Global and consumer culture
Global culture refers to cultural products and practices that cross borders, driven by media, migration and trade. George Ritzer (1993) called the spread of standardised products "McDonaldization": Efficiency, calculability, predictability and control reshaping cultures worldwide. Critics argue this is cultural imperialism, where Western (especially American) culture overwrites local traditions.
Consumer culture is closely linked. Zygmunt Bauman (2007) argued modern societies turn citizens into consumers, with identity built through what you buy rather than what you do. The brand of your trainers, the streaming service you use and the holidays you post about all become signals of who you are.
Four perspectives on culture
Top-band answers compare at least two perspectives. The table below gives you a quick-reference card for the four you need.
| Perspective | View of culture | Key thinker |
|---|---|---|
| Functionalism | Culture creates value consensus and social solidarity, binding society together | Durkheim, Parsons |
| Marxism | Mass culture is ideology that distracts workers and reproduces ruling-class power | Frankfurt School, Marcuse |
| Feminism | Culture transmits patriarchal norms through media, language and socialisation | Ann Oakley, bell hooks |
| Postmodernism | Culture is fragmented, fluid and pick-and-mix; high vs popular has collapsed | Strinati, Baudrillard |
Common exam mistakes on culture questions
Examiner reports flag the same errors year after year. Most are about precision, not knowledge. Read the question stem carefully: A question on "the changing nature of culture" wants postmodern evaluation, a question on "the role of culture" wants functionalism, and a question on "culture and inequality" wants Marxism or feminism.
Mark-scheme killers to avoid Describing culture only as "art and music" (it includes language, norms, customs, beliefs and material objects). Forgetting that culture is learned through socialisation. Using subculture and counterculture as if they were the same (countercultures actively oppose the mainstream). Failing to name a single theorist. Treating popular and mass culture as identical (mass is a Marxist critical term, popular is more neutral).
Worked answer plan: A 20-mark question
Question: Evaluate the view that culture today is fragmented and pick-and-mix.
Introduction: Define culture using Linton. Define fragmentation using Strinati.
Paragraph 1: Postmodern evidence. Strinati on collapse of high-popular divide, Bauman on consumer identities, examples like genre-mixing music streaming.
Paragraph 2: Functionalist counterpoint. Durkheim on shared value consensus, Parsons on socialisation, evidence of national rituals (Remembrance Day, Olympics) showing culture is still shared.
Paragraph 3: Marxist counterpoint. Frankfurt School on mass culture as ideology, fragmentation is an illusion because corporate brands still dominate.
Conclusion: Postmodern view captures real change but overstates fragmentation. A synthesis: Surface-level pick-and-mix sits on top of a still-shared commercial culture.
Culture revision checklist
Tick each off before your Paper 2 mock.
- Definition: Shared values, norms, beliefs, language and material objects transmitted through socialisation
- Seven types: High, popular, mass, folk, sub, global, consumer
- Named theorists: Bourdieu (cultural capital), Hebdige (subcultures), Strinati (postmodern blurring), Ritzer (McDonaldization), Bauman (consumer identity)
- Four perspectives: Functionalism, Marxism, feminism, postmodernism
- Key debate: Has the high-popular divide collapsed?
- Key debate: Is global culture cultural imperialism or genuine sharing?
- Evaluation: Always include at least one counterpoint perspective
- Avoid the trap: Culture is not just art, it is the whole way of life
