Crime and deviance in GCSE Sociology

Crime is any behaviour that breaks a formal law and can be punished by the state. Deviance is any behaviour that breaks social norms but is not always illegal. The two overlap but are not the same: Murder is both criminal and deviant, jaywalking is criminal but not very deviant, and queue-jumping is deviant but not criminal.

This guide covers the AQA definitions, the four main sociological theories (functionalist, Marxist, feminist, and interactionist), how official crime statistics can mislead, and how to structure top-mark answers. By the end you will know exactly how examiners want this topic written about.

Crime is behaviour that breaks the criminal law of a society and can be punished by the state through fines, imprisonment, or other formal sanctions. Deviance is behaviour that breaks the informal norms of a society and is punished informally, through reactions like disapproval, gossip, or exclusion.

The key sociological insight is that what counts as crime or deviance varies between societies and across time. Drinking alcohol is legal in the UK but illegal in Saudi Arabia. Homosexuality was illegal in England until 1967 and is now a protected characteristic. This variation is why sociologists describe crime and deviance as socially constructed.

Not all crime is deviant, and not all deviance is criminal. Sociologists use four categories to map the relationship: Acts that are both criminal and deviant, criminal but not deviant, deviant but not criminal, and neither criminal nor deviant.

This distinction matters because it explains why some crimes are punished harshly while others are barely policed, and why some non-criminal behaviour still attracts strong social disapproval.

AQA expects you to know four main theoretical perspectives on crime and deviance. Each theory explains where crime comes from and what role it plays in society. A 12-mark question normally asks you to apply two of them, so memorise at least two in detail and know the basics of the others.

Functionalists, especially Durkheim, argue that crime is a normal and even useful part of society. A small amount of crime helps society work by reinforcing shared values, marking the boundary between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, and encouraging social change.

The key concept is the boundary-maintenance function: When a crime is reported and punished, the rest of society is reminded what the norms are. Merton's strain theory builds on this, arguing crime happens when people cannot achieve socially approved goals through approved means, so they turn to deviant routes. Albert Cohen developed this further with his idea of status frustration: Working-class boys who fail in mainstream society form delinquent subcultures where they can win status by inverting middle-class values.

Marxists argue crime is a product of capitalism and class inequality. The ruling class makes laws that protect their own interests, the police and courts apply those laws more harshly to the working class, and white-collar crime by the wealthy is under-policed.

Commonly cited thinkers in textbooks include Chambliss, who studied how laws around vagrancy protected business interests, and Snider, who showed how corporate crime causes more harm but receives less attention than street crime. Both are A-level / textbook additions rather than GCSE spec-named thinkers, but they can still be used to illustrate the Marxist view. For the exam, link Marxist theory to selective law enforcement and the under-reporting of crimes by the powerful.

Feminists argue that mainstream criminology has ignored gender. Women are far less likely to be convicted of crime than men, but they are over-represented as victims of certain crimes like domestic abuse and sexual violence.

Heidensohn argued that women are controlled more tightly by patriarchal society, in the home, at work, and in public spaces, which reduces their opportunities to offend. Carlen argued that working-class women in particular only turn to crime when the rewards of conformity break down. Both are useful for 4-mark and 12-mark questions.

Interactionists, especially Becker, argue crime and deviance only exist because society labels certain acts as criminal or deviant. The act itself is not inherently wrong, what matters is the social reaction.

Becker's labelling theory says once someone is labelled a criminal, they often live up to the label, leading to a deviant career. Lemert distinguished primary deviance (the original act) from secondary deviance (behaviour caused by the label). This theory explains why young people from certain backgrounds get caught in the criminal justice system more easily.

Official crime statistics are recorded by the police and published by the government. They are useful but unreliable, because not every crime is reported, recorded, or solved. The unreported, unrecorded crimes are known as the dark figure of crime.

Victims may not report crimes if they fear they will not be believed, do not trust the police, or feel the crime is too minor. Police may not record reports if they doubt the victim or if recording the crime would harm their performance figures. Sociologists therefore treat official statistics as a starting point, not the truth.

AQA 12-mark questions on crime ask you to apply two sociological theories or explain two reasons for a trend. The mark scheme rewards a clear introduction, two well-developed points, and an evaluation.

A model structure: Define the key term in the question, set out point one with a named sociologist and an example, set out point two with a different theory and a named sociologist, then evaluate by saying which point is stronger and why. Two sides of A4 is usually plenty if every sentence does work.