Key facts and dates

The period from 1415 to 1429 during the Hundred Years War saw dramatic shifts, from English triumphs under Henry V to the French resurgence inspired by Joan of Arc. This timeline captures the pivotal events that shaped the conflict during these years.

Timeline of key events

• 1415 – Henry V renews the war with the Agincourt campaign, achieving a stunning victory.
• 1417-1422 – English forces conquer and consolidate control over northern France.
• 1420 – Treaty of Troyes recognises Henry V as heir to the French throne.
• 1422 – Death of Henry V, leaving infant Henry VI as king during a vulnerable minority.
• 1429 – Joan of Arc relieves the siege of Orléans, boosting French morale.
• 1431 – Joan of Arc executed, yet her legacy endures.

Reasons for Henry V's renewal of the war in 1415

The Hundred Years War, a prolonged conflict between England and France over territorial claims and royal succession, had been simmering for decades before Henry V reignited it in 1415. His decision to renew hostilities was driven by a combination of personal, political, and opportunistic factors, reflecting both his ambitions and the circumstances in France at the time.

Key motivations for war

• Establishing dynastic legitimacy - Henry V, having recently ascended to the throne in 1413 after a turbulent succession, sought to strengthen the Lancastrian dynasty's claim by reviving English claims to the French crown, a cause rooted in Edward III's assertions from 1337.
• Exploiting French weakness - The French king, Charles VI, suffered from periods of mental instability, often referred to as his "madness", which led to factionalism between the Armagnacs and Burgundians, creating a power vacuum that Henry could exploit.
• Domestic political strategy - In England, Henry faced the need to unify his nobles and redirect internal tensions outward; a foreign war provided a rallying cause, boosting national pride and securing loyalty through the promise of glory and plunder.

The Agincourt campaign and English military prestige

Henry V's campaign in 1415 marked a significant turning point in the Hundred Years War, showcasing English military prowess and restoring national confidence. The campaign culminated in the Battle of Agincourt, a victory that became legendary despite the odds stacked against the English.

Stages of the Agincourt campaign

1. Siege of Harfleur (August-September 1415) - Henry's forces laid siege to this key Norman port, capturing it after weeks of intense fighting, though at the cost of significant casualties from disease and exhaustion.
2. March to Calais - With supplies dwindling, Henry led a depleted army on a risky march towards the English-held port of Calais, intending to return home, but was intercepted by a much larger French force.
3. Battle of Agincourt (25 October 1415) - Despite being outnumbered, the English achieved a decisive victory through superior tactics, particularly the effective use of longbowmen against heavily armoured French knights, resulting in thousands of French casualties compared to minimal English losses.
4. Restoration of prestige - This triumph erased the memory of earlier English setbacks, re-establishing their reputation as a formidable military power and bolstering Henry's authority at home and abroad.

The Treaty of Troyes and English dominance

Following Agincourt, Henry V capitalised on his military success to secure a diplomatic breakthrough that appeared to cement English control over France. The Treaty of Troyes in 1420 was a landmark agreement, altering the course of the war.

Key provisions and impacts of the Treaty of Troyes

• Henry as heir to France - The treaty recognised Henry V as the legitimate heir to the French throne, effectively bypassing the French Dauphin Charles (later Charles VII).
• Marriage alliance - Henry married Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI, creating a dynastic link intended to unify the crowns of England and France under his lineage.
• Disinheritance of the Dauphin - The agreement excluded the Dauphin from succession, branding him illegitimate due to factional disputes and weakening French royal authority further.
• Apparent English triumph - With this treaty, England seemed poised to dominate France, achieving a significant step towards Henry's goal of uniting the two kingdoms under one ruler.

English conquests and challenges after Henry V's death

Between 1417 and 1422, English forces expanded their control over northern France, building on the momentum from Agincourt and the Treaty of Troyes. However, the sudden death of Henry V introduced new vulnerabilities that tested English dominance.

Expansion and consolidation (1417-1422)

• Conquest of northern France - English armies systematically captured key territories, including Normandy and parts of the Île-de-France, using sieges and alliances with the Burgundian faction against the Armagnacs.
• Administrative control - Henry established English governance in occupied areas, imposing taxes and legal systems to integrate these regions, though resistance persisted among local populations.

Crisis during Henry VI's minority (1422 onwards)

• Death of Henry V - In 1422, Henry V died unexpectedly of dysentery at the age of 35, leaving his infant son, Henry VI, as king of both England and France, creating a power vacuum.
• Regency challenges - The regency government, led by Henry's brothers and nobles, struggled to maintain unity and resources for the war, while French resistance grew under the disinherited Dauphin.
• Weakening position - Internal divisions in England and overextension in France began to erode the gains made, setting the stage for a French revival.

Joan of Arc's intervention and transformation of the war

By 1429, the French cause appeared nearly hopeless, with English forces besieging the strategic city of Orléans. The emergence of Joan of Arc, a young peasant girl inspired by divine visions, marked a dramatic turning point, reinvigorating French resistance.

Joan of Arc's role and impact

• Visions and mission (1429) - Joan, claiming to hear voices from saints, convinced the Dauphin Charles to let her lead troops, believing she was divinely chosen to save France.
• Relief of Orléans (April-May 1429) - Joan inspired French forces to lift the English siege of Orléans, a critical victory that broke English momentum and boosted French confidence.
• Coronation of Charles VII - She escorted the Dauphin to Reims, the traditional coronation site, where he was crowned as Charles VII in July 1429, reinforcing his legitimacy as king.
• Capture and execution (1430-1431) - Joan was captured by Burgundian forces in 1430, sold to the English, tried for heresy, and executed by burning in 1431, yet her martyrdom only deepened her symbolic power.
• Psychological and national impact - Her actions transformed the conflict from a feudal dispute over succession into a national struggle for French identity, galvanising resistance against foreign rule.

Historiographical debates on Joan's significance

• Military vs symbolic role - Some historians argue her military contributions were limited compared to her symbolic value, inspiring unity and morale among French troops and civilians.
• Feudal to national war - Others highlight her role in shifting the war's nature, framing it as a fight for national sovereignty rather than dynastic claims, influencing modern perceptions of French nationalism.
• Legacy and canonisation - Joan's enduring image as a national heroine, later canonised as a saint in 1920, reflects her profound cultural impact, even as debates continue over the extent of her practical influence on the war's outcome.