Key facts and dates

The final phase of the Hundred Years War (1429–1453) marked a turning point for both France and England, with French recovery and English decline reshaping their political landscapes. This timeline highlights the critical events and milestones during this decisive period.

Timeline of key events

• 1429 – Joan of Arc inspires French victory at Orléans, boosting morale.
• 1435 – Congress of Arras reconciles France with Burgundy, ending a key alliance with England.
• 1444 – Treaty of Tours temporarily halts hostilities between England and France.
• 1450 – Loss of Normandy to French forces, a major blow to English holdings.
• 1451–1453 – Loss of Gascony, leaving England with only Calais as a continental possession.
• 1453 – Final English defeat at the Battle of Castillon, effectively ending the war.

French recovery under Charles VII

By 1429, France was in a dire situation, with much of its territory under English control or influence. However, under the leadership of Charles VII, crowned in 1429 with the inspiration of Joan of Arc, France embarked on a remarkable recovery. This resurgence was driven by a series of military, financial, and diplomatic reforms that systematically turned the tide of the war.

Key reforms and strategies for recovery

• Military reforms - Charles VII established the compagnies d'ordonnance, a permanent royal army, which provided a disciplined and reliable force, reducing dependence on feudal levies. This professional standing army was supported by advancements in artillery, making sieges of English-held fortresses more effective.
• Financial reforms - New taxation systems were introduced to fund the military efforts. These reforms ensured a steady flow of resources, allowing sustained campaigns against English territories.
• Diplomatic success at the Congress of Arras (1435) - This pivotal event reconciled France with Burgundy, a former English ally. Burgundy's shift in allegiance isolated England diplomatically and strengthened France's position in the conflict.
• Systematic reconquest - With improved military and financial systems, French forces methodically reclaimed English-held territories, capitalising on strategic victories inspired early on by Joan of Arc's leadership at Orléans in 1429.

English collapse under Henry VI

While France experienced a revival, England faced a dramatic decline during the final phase of the war. Under the reign of Henry VI, who ascended the throne as an infant in 1422, England struggled with internal weaknesses and external losses that ultimately led to the near-total expulsion from continental Europe.

Factors leading to English decline

• Weak leadership of Henry VI - Henry VI proved to be an ineffective ruler, lacking the military or political acumen of his predecessors. His eventual mental breakdown in 1453 further paralysed English decision-making during critical moments of the war.
• Territorial losses - The loss of Normandy in 1450 was a significant blow, followed by the loss of Gascony between 1451 and 1453. By the war's end, England retained only Calais as its last continental stronghold.
• Political instability - Internal divisions and factionalism at court undermined England's war effort, with nobles often prioritising personal power struggles over national interests.
• War-weariness and opposition - Prolonged conflict drained English resources and public support. Resistance to heavy taxation grew, limiting the funds available for military campaigns.

Key events and treaties in the final phase

The final phase of the Hundred Years War was marked by significant events and diplomatic efforts that shaped its conclusion. These moments highlighted the shifting balance of power and the ultimate French triumph.

Critical milestones in the war's end

• Treaty of Tours (1444) - This temporary truce aimed to pause hostilities, arranging a marriage between Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou, a French noblewoman. However, it failed to address underlying tensions and only delayed further conflict.
• Final defeat at Castillon (1453) - The Battle of Castillon marked the decisive end of English hopes in France. French artillery overwhelmed English forces, confirming their expulsion from most continental territories and effectively concluding the war.

Reasons for English defeat

• French military superiority - France's reformed army and advanced artillery outmatched English capabilities, particularly in siege warfare.
• Loss of Burgundian alliance - The 1435 Congress of Arras stripped England of a crucial ally, leaving it diplomatically isolated.
• Inadequate resources - England struggled with insufficient funds and manpower, exacerbated by domestic opposition to war taxes.
• Internal instability - Political discord and Henry VI's ineffective rule prevented a unified response to French advances.

Short-term and long-term impacts on France

The conclusion of the Hundred Years War had profound effects on France, both immediately after 1453 and in the centuries that followed. While victory strengthened the monarchy, the war's toll on society and the economy was immense.

Immediate consequences for France

• Strengthened monarchy - Charles VII's success in reclaiming territories enhanced royal authority, centralising power and diminishing feudal fragmentation.
• Improved systems - The establishment of a permanent army and reformed taxation systems laid the foundation for a more robust state structure.
• Economic and social devastation - A century of warfare left France's countryside ravaged, with destroyed villages, disrupted trade, and a burdened peasantry facing high taxes to rebuild.

Long-term significance for France

• Emerging national consciousness - The shared struggle against England fostered a sense of French identity, uniting disparate regions under the crown.
• Dominance as a continental power - With England expelled, France emerged as the leading power in Western Europe, setting the stage for future territorial and political ambitions.

Short-term and long-term impacts on England

For England, the end of the Hundred Years War brought significant setbacks, redirecting its focus inward and reshaping its future trajectory. The loss of continental ambitions had both immediate and enduring consequences.

Immediate consequences for England

• Loss of continental possessions - Retaining only Calais, England was effectively excluded from mainland Europe, marking a significant reduction in territorial influence.
• Financial burden - The war left England with heavy debts from military campaigns and taxation, straining the economy and public morale.
• Political instability - Discontent over the war's outcome and Henry VI's weak rule contributed to factionalism, soon erupting into the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487), a civil conflict over the English throne.

Long-term significance for England

• Reorientation away from continental ambitions - The loss of French territories shifted England's focus towards insular concerns and later maritime exploration, paving the way for naval power and colonial expansion.
• Political restructuring - The turmoil of defeat and civil war eventually led to stronger central governance under the Tudors, stabilising England after decades of unrest.