Key facts and dates

The second phase of the Hundred Years War, spanning from 1360 to 1389, saw the resumption of conflict between England and France after a brief peace. This period was marked by French recovery under Charles V and significant English setbacks, culminating in a temporary truce.

Timeline of key events:

• 1360 – Treaty of Brétigny temporarily halts hostilities, with England gaining territories.
• 1369 – Warfare resumes due to disputes over Brétigny and French resentment.
• 1370s – Charles V employs attrition and guerrilla tactics to reclaim territories.
• 1376 – Death of Edward, the Black Prince, weakening English military leadership.
• 1377 – Death of Edward III, leaving England under Richard II's minority rule.
• 1389 – Truce agreed, pausing major hostilities with England retaining only Calais and a strip of Gascony.

Causes of renewed warfare in 1369

After the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360, which had granted England significant territorial gains in France, a fragile peace held for less than a decade. Hostilities resumed in 1369 due to a combination of unresolved tensions and active provocations, setting the stage for the second phase of the Hundred Years War.

Reasons for the resumption of conflict:

• Disputes over the Treaty of Brétigny - The treaty's terms, including territorial transfers and ransom payments for King John II of France, were poorly implemented, leading to disagreements and mistrust between the two crowns.
• French resentment at territorial losses - The cession of large areas like Aquitaine to England under the treaty bred anger among French nobles and the populace, who viewed these losses as humiliating.
• Charles V's determination to recover territory - Ascending to the French throne in 1364, Charles V was committed to reversing English gains, adopting a policy of reconquest to restore French sovereignty.
• English provocations - Actions such as imposing taxes and asserting control in ceded territories irritated local French populations and nobility, prompting appeals to Charles V to intervene and reclaim control.

Charles V's recovery strategy for France

Under Charles V, often called "the Wise", France adopted a calculated approach to regain lost territories during the 1370s. Rather than seeking decisive battles, his strategy focused on wearing down English forces and systematically reclaiming land.

Key elements of French military strategy:

• Avoidance of major battles - Charles V recognised that pitched battles often favoured the English due to their superior longbowmen and tactics, so he prioritised smaller, strategic engagements.
• Use of attrition and guerrilla tactics - French forces harassed English garrisons and supply lines through ambushes and raids, draining their resources and morale over time.
• Reliance on professional commanders - Leaders like Bertrand du Guesclin, appointed Constable of France, brought disciplined military expertise, focusing on capturing key strongholds and disrupting English control.
• Systematic reconquest of territories - By targeting isolated English holdings one by one, France steadily eroded the vast areas gained under the Treaty of Brétigny, reclaiming much of Aquitaine and other regions by the end of Charles V's reign.

English challenges and territorial losses

While France gained ground under Charles V, England faced mounting difficulties that undermined their position in the war. Internal issues and military setbacks combined to reverse many of their earlier gains by the late 1370s.

Major challenges facing England:

• Declining health of key leaders - Edward III, the ageing English king, suffered poor health, reducing his ability to lead, while the death of his son, Edward the Black Prince, in 1376 removed a skilled military commander.
• Divisions at court - Political infighting among English nobles weakened decision-making and unity, hampering effective responses to French advances.
• Financial exhaustion - The cost of maintaining garrisons in France and funding campaigns drained English coffers, leading to heavy taxation and domestic discontent.
• Significant territorial losses - By the end of this phase, England lost most territories gained at Brétigny, retaining only Calais and a narrow coastal strip of Gascony, a dramatic reduction from their earlier holdings.
• Death of Edward III in 1377 - His passing left the throne to the young Richard II, whose minority rule under regents further destabilised English governance and war efforts.

Impact of the war on both kingdoms

The prolonged conflict during this phase placed immense strain on both England and France, affecting their economies, political structures, and societies. However, the outcomes for each kingdom differed significantly by the late 1380s.

Effects on England and France:

Significance of the 1389 truce and lessons from this phase

By 1389, both kingdoms were exhausted from decades of conflict, leading to a truce that paused major hostilities. This temporary peace, combined with the events of the preceding years, revealed critical insights into the nature of prolonged warfare.

Outcomes and broader implications:

• Truce of 1389 - Agreed upon due to mutual exhaustion, it marked a respite rather than a resolution, with England clinging to minimal territories and France having largely recovered its lands.
• Limits of battlefield superiority - This phase demonstrated that English tactical advantages, such as at Crécy and Poitiers in earlier stages, did not guarantee long-term success against a determined strategy of attrition.
• Importance of sustained resources - France's ability to fund and organise systematic reconquest contrasted with England's financial and political struggles, showing that endurance often outweighed initial military prowess in protracted conflicts.
• Foundation for future tensions - While the truce halted large-scale fighting, underlying disputes over territory and sovereignty persisted, setting the stage for further phases of the Hundred Years War in the following century.