Understanding gender inequalities and sexism

Gender inequalities refer to the unequal treatment or outcomes experienced by individuals based on their gender, often stemming from societal norms, expectations, and structures. These inequalities can appear in various areas of life, such as education and health, and may favour one gender over another in different contexts. A key concept underpinning many of these inequalities is sexism.

Sexism

Sexism involves negative or unfounded beliefs and attitudes about people based on their sex or gender.

Gender inequalities in education

In education, gender inequalities show up in achievement levels, support needs, and disciplinary actions. Over recent years, patterns have emerged where girls tend to achieve higher results in many areas, while boys face specific challenges. These differences can be linked to factors like teaching styles, societal expectations, and how schools address individual needs.

Key patterns in educational achievement and experiences

• Achievement at GCSE level - Girls generally outperform boys in terms of achieving higher grades (such as A* to C or 5–9) across most subjects, often by a wide margin. The exception is mathematics, where results are more similar.
• Special educational needs (SEN) - Boys are more than twice as likely as girls to be identified as having special educational needs. For instance, in 2016, around 14.7% of boys received SEN support compared to 8.2% of girls.
• School exclusions - Boys make up four-fifths of permanent exclusions from schools.

Gender inequalities in health

Health outcomes often vary by gender, with women generally experiencing better overall results in areas like life expectancy, while men face higher risks from certain causes. These differences arise from a mix of biological factors, lifestyle choices, and social influences, including the types of work people do and societal pressures.

Life expectancy

Life expectancy measures the average number of years a person is expected to live based on current mortality rates. In the UK, significant gender gaps exist in this area.

Patterns in life expectancy and death rates:

• Overall life expectancy - Women typically live longer than men. For example, a girl born in 2004 could expect to reach 81.1 years, compared to 76.7 years for a boy born in the same year. This gap persists across all age groups, with women's death rates being lower than men's at every stage of life.
• Death rates by class and age - Men's death rates are nearly double those of women in every social class. Additionally, about two thirds of deaths before the retirement age of 65 are among men, leading to a higher proportion of women (58%) in the over-65 population.

Work-related health risks for men

• Men often face greater health challenges due to the nature of their employment, which tends to involve more physical risks and demanding conditions.
• This connects to broader gender inequalities in the labour market, where traditional roles steer men towards certain jobs.
• Men are more likely to work in manual occupations that expose them to industrial accidents and diseases, such as those caused by chemicals or dust. In 2016, the Health and Safety Executive estimated around 13,000 work-related deaths annually in the UK from such exposures, disproportionately affecting men.
• Men are more likely to have full-time work, longer hours, and unsociable shifts like night work, all of which can harm physical and mental health.
• For men, work often forms a core part of their identity, so events like redundancy or unemployment can lead to severe negative effects, including stress-related illnesses or mental health issues.

Theoretical perspectives on male disadvantages

Some sociologists argue that men face specific forms of discrimination or disadvantage, challenging the view that inequalities always favour men. These perspectives highlight areas where men may be overlooked or unfairly treated, often due to sexism.

Benatar's concept of the 'second sexism'

David Benatar introduces the idea of the 'second sexism' to describe discrimination against men.

Key arguments:

• Benatar claims men are more likely to be conscripted into military service during wars and are more frequent victims of violence, including casual crime, political purges, and genocides.
• In family matters, such as marital break-ups, women are more likely to gain custody of children.
• Men also tend to hold the most dangerous, least desirable, and insecure jobs.

Farrell's concept of the 'glass cellar'

Warren Farrell uses the term 'glass cellar' to refer to the concentration of men in low-status, high-risk jobs. Farrell points out that in an analysis of the 25 lowest-ranked jobs (often poorly paid and insecure), 24 are dominated by men.