Evidence from sociological studies on gender gaps

Research highlights persistent inequalities, showing that men often have better chances of upward mobility than women. These findings come from studies comparing career progression, wages, and class movement.

Key research findings

• Lee Savage's study - Men are 40 per cent more likely than women to climb the career ladder.
• Wage comparisons across generations - In 2016, working women typically earned more than their mothers but rarely more than their fathers. In contrast, working men generally earned more than both parents.
• Li and Devine's research - Women remain less likely to experience upward mobility and more likely to face downward mobility.

Historical improvements in women's relative mobility

While gender gaps persist, data from the 2015 Social Mobility and Child Poverty Commission shows progress for women over time. Relative mobility rates have flat-lined for men, but have advanced for women.

Changes in odds ratios for women

• Girls born in the 1940s - Those from middle-class families were eight times more likely to achieve middle-class status as adults compared to working-class girls.
• Girls born in the 1970s - Middle-class girls were only four times more likely to reach middle-class adulthood than their working-class peers, indicating that working-class women have caught up and even overtaken men in relative mobility rates.

This narrowing gap suggests greater equality in access to opportunities, though working-class individuals of both genders still struggle to break through the glass ceiling into professional roles.

Economic and educational factors driving changes

The improvements in women's mobility, especially for those born in the 1970s, stem from broader societal shifts. These changes have reshaped the job market, creating more pathways for women while reducing options for men in traditional sectors.

Key factors influencing mobility

• Decline in male-dominated industries - The 1980s saw a reduction in well-paid male jobs due to the UK's industrial and manufacturing decline, limiting upward mobility for men.
• Expansion of the service sector - Growth in pink-collar jobs (roles traditionally associated with women, such as in retail, finance, education, and health) increased employment opportunities for women, leading to a feminisation of the workforce - the increasing proportion of women in paid employment.
• Improvements in female education - Girls have shown noticeable gains in educational performance, particularly at GCSE, A-level, and degree level.

As a result, women born in the 1970s experienced more upward mobility than those born in the 1940s, driven by these economic and educational transformations.

Recent declines in mobility for both genders

Despite historical gains for women, evidence indicates a reversal in trends for younger generations. Relative mobility is now declining for both males and females born in the 1980s, who reached their 30s in the 2010s.

Trends in declining mobility

• Flat-lining for men - Men's relative mobility rates have remained stagnant, with no significant improvements in class movement opportunities.
• Reversal for women - Although women saw gains in earlier decades, those born in the 1980s face reduced chances of upward mobility, similar to men.