Shifts in work patterns and wealth distribution in the UK

The structure of work and the distribution of wealth in the UK have transformed significantly over the 20th century, reflecting broader societal changes. These shifts have altered the traditional class system and influenced social stratification.

Key changes in employment and economic patterns

• Decline in manual labour - There has been a notable reduction in manual jobs, with a corresponding rise in non-manual roles compared to the early 1900s.
• Growth of service industries - Sectors like leisure and hospitality have expanded, while primary industries (such as mining) and manufacturing have diminished.
• Increased female employment - The proportion of working-age women in employment has grown from 55% in 1971 to over 70% in recent years.
• Wealth distribution trends - Between 1945 and 1980, income and wealth became more evenly spread across society.
• Widening inequality post-1980 - Since 1980, the gap between the rich and poor has increased again, partly due to the privatisation of many state-controlled industries in the 1980s and 1990s, which enhanced the power of private businesses and expanded share ownership.
• Concentration of wealth - Despite these changes, a small minority still holds the majority of wealth in the UK.

Changes in the ruling class and differing perspectives

The concept of a ruling class in the UK has evolved, with significant debate among sociologists about the extent of these changes. Opinions vary on whether power has become more dispersed or remains concentrated.

Perspectives on the ruling class

• New Right viewpoint - Theorists like Saunders (1990) argue that the ruling class has fragmented due to wider share ownership, suggesting that power is now distributed among a broader group of stakeholders rather than a small elite.
• Marxist perspective - Marxists maintain that a ruling class still exists. John Scott (1991, 1992) acknowledges increased share ownership but contends that most individuals hold minimal shares and thus wield little real power. Alongside Westergaard and Resler (1976), Scott argues that a power elite continues to dominate business and the economy.

Growth and fragmentation of the middle class

The middle class in the UK has expanded over the 20th century, but there is ongoing debate about whether it remains a unified group or is splitting into distinct subgroups with varying experiences and opportunities.

Developments in the middle class

• Expansion of the middle class - Functionalists and Weberians point to the rise of professional occupations, such as lawyers and doctors, as evidence of a growing middle class.
• Embourgeoisement theory:
  • Popular in the 1950s and 1960s, this idea suggests that working-class individuals adopt middle-class lifestyles and values as their incomes rise.
  • However, Goldthorpe et al. (1968) challenged this in a study of car workers in Luton, finding persistent differences in attitudes to work and promotion prospects compared to non-manual middle-class workers.

Evidence of middle-class fragmentation

• Intermediate class - Goldthorpe identifies an intermediate class of low-grade non-manual workers who share little in common with higher middle-class professionals, differing in wages, benefits, and employer relationships.
• Proletarianisation - Marxist Harry Braverman (1974) argues that technology has deskilled many non-manual jobs, aligning these workers more closely with the working class in terms of job security and income.
• Varied self-perception - Roberts et al. (1977) found significant differences in how 'middle-class' workers viewed their own class position, suggesting the middle class is breaking into smaller, distinct layers.
• Unified middle class - Contrarily, Giddens (1973) asserts that a distinct middle class persists, defined by the ability to sell intellectual skills rather than just physical labour, setting them apart from the working class.

Postmodernist views on the decline of class significance

Some sociologists argue that class as a concept is losing relevance in modern society, reflecting a shift away from traditional economic divisions towards other forms of identity and status.

Arguments for the decline of class

• Postmodernist perspective - Pakulski and Waters (1996) claim that class is no longer a central factor in social analysis, supported by several trends:
  • Wealth distribution - Wealth became more evenly distributed during the 20th century, reducing economic class disparities and increasing disposable income for consumer goods.
  • Educational influence - Life chances are increasingly determined by educational status rather than class background.
  • New political focus - Politics now centres on non-economic issues like ethnicity, identity, and environmental concerns rather than class-based struggles.
  • Voting patterns - Voting no longer strictly aligns with class, as manual workers do not consistently support left-wing parties.
• Evolution of society - Pakulski and Waters describe a transition from an economic class society in the 19th century, through a hierarchical class society in the early 20th century, to a status-based society by the late 20th century.
• Counterargument - Marxist sociologist John Westergaard (1995) disputes this, arguing that widening wealth gaps and the growing power of big business make class more relevant than ever in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Decline and division of the working class

The traditional British working class, historically rooted in manufacturing and heavy industry, has undergone significant decline and fragmentation due to economic and technological changes over the 20th century.

Factors contributing to working-class decline

• Industrial decline - The reduction in manufacturing and heavy industry sectors has shrunk the size of the working class.
• Division within the class - Ralph Dahrendorf (1959) argues that the working class has split into skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled groups due to technological advancements, preventing unity.
• Historical division - Penn (1983) counters Dahrendorf, noting through research in Rochdale cotton mills that such divisions have existed since at least the 1850s.
• Emerging subgroups - Crewe (1983) suggests the working class is fragmenting into distinct groups with different interests, such as a 'new working class' in the South, working in private sectors and owning homes, versus an 'old working class' in the North, living in council housing and employed in public sectors.

Marxist perspective on working-class persistence

• Adaptation of roles - Marxists argue that the working class persists despite occupational shifts, as the fundamental lack of status, rights, and power in employment remains unchanged.
• New low-wage jobs - Beynon (1992) highlights that traditional working-class roles have been replaced by poorly paid, low-condition jobs in sectors like call centres, fast food, and hospitality, which mirror the repetitive, manual nature of factory work.
• Globalisation impact - The movement of manufacturing jobs abroad to cheaper labour markets has contributed to the decline of working-class jobs in the UK.

Emergence of an underclass in British society

Below the working class, some sociologists identify a distinct group known as the underclass, characterised by extreme disadvantage and exclusion from mainstream economic and social structures.

Definitions and characteristics of the underclass

• New Right view - Charles Murray (1989) describes the underclass as a group defined by undesirable behaviours, including lack of motivation, poor education, delinquency, and reluctance to work, viewing them as a threat to societal stability.
• Welfare dependency - Runciman (1990) defines the underclass as those permanently reliant on welfare benefits, excluded from regular employment.
• Labour market exclusion - Giddens (1993) sees the underclass as the most disadvantaged in the job market, such as illegal immigrants, often confined to a secondary labour market of insecure, low-paid jobs.
• Growth factors - Dahrendorf (1987) suggests the underclass is expanding due to globalisation, which reduces demand for manual labour through outsourcing and automation. Additionally, the rise of flexible, temporary, and casual work contributes to this trend.