The functionalist perspective on crime and deviance as necessary in society

Functionalist sociologists argue that crime and deviance serve important roles in society. They believe these behaviours contribute to social cohesion and progress.

The positive functions of crime and deviance

• Boundary maintenance - Deviant acts help to clarify and strengthen societal norms by uniting the majority against such behaviour.
• Facilitating social change - Durkheim (1897) suggested that deviance is essential for societal evolution. When society responds positively to deviant acts, it can lead to those behaviours becoming accepted over time.
• Balancing crime levels - Durkheim also noted that crime becomes problematic only when it is at extreme levels:
  • If too high, it disrupts social order and stability.
  • If too low, it stifles innovation and prevents necessary change.

Cohen's views on deviance maintaining social order

Albert Cohen (1966) expanded on functionalist ideas by highlighting specific ways in which deviance supports societal stability.

Mechanisms of social order through deviance

• Safety valve for tension - Cohen argued that certain deviant behaviours, such as prostitution, provide an outlet for societal pressures without threatening the overall stability of the social structure.
• Warning device for issues - Deviant acts like protests, civil disobedience, or truancy serve as indicators of emerging social problems that can then be dealt with.

Merton's strain theory and adaptations to societal goals

Robert Merton (1968), another functionalist thinker, developed strain theory to explain why individuals turn to crime. His research in the United States focused on the disparity between societal goals and the means available to achieve them.

Core concepts of strain theory

• Cultural goals and means - Merton identified success and wealth as key cultural goals in American society, often termed the 'American Dream'. The primary legitimate means to achieve these goals is through education.
• Anomie and strain - When individuals are unable to reach these goals through legitimate means due to barriers like discrimination or poverty, they experience anomie. This strain often leads to deviant behaviour.

Merton outlined five ways individuals respond to this strain:

Differential association theory and learned deviance

Edwin Sutherland (1939) proposed the differential association theory, which explains how criminal behaviour is learned through social interactions.

Key principles of differential association

• Learning through interaction - Deviance, including criminal attitudes and techniques, is acquired by associating with others who engage in such behaviour.
• Transmission of deviant values - Individuals adopt criminal behaviours and values by spending time with deviants.

Subcultural theories on status frustration and deviant subcultures

Subcultural theories explore how certain groups develop values that encourage deviance as a form of conformity within their own circles.

Status frustration in working-class youth

• Cultural deprivation and frustration - Albert Cohen (1955) argued that working-class boys often face limited opportunities in mainstream society due to cultural deprivation. This results in status frustration.
• Alternative value systems - To cope, these individuals form or join subcultural groups with inverted values, where deviant acts are celebrated and provide status within the group.

Cloward and Ohlin's three deviant subcultures

Cloward and Ohlin (1960) built on the ideas of Merton and Cohen, suggesting that just as access to legitimate opportunities varies, so does access to illegitimate ones.

They identified three distinct subcultures:

1. Criminal subculture - Found in areas with established criminal networks, often led by adult career criminals. Crimes are utilitarian, aimed at financial gain, such as theft or drug dealing.
2. Conflict subculture - Emerges in unstable areas lacking a strong criminal culture. Youth form gangs engaging in non-utilitarian crimes like violence or vandalism, often through territorial disputes.
3. Retreatist subculture - Involves individuals who fail in both legitimate and illegitimate structures, leading them to withdraw from society through substance abuse.

Critiques of subcultural theories

• Assumption of universal goals - Critics like Taylor, Walton, and Young (1973) argue that not all deviant groups aspire to mainstream success and wealth, pointing to countercultural movements like hippies.
• Overlap of subcultures - These theories often fail to account for individuals participating in multiple subcultures simultaneously.