9.3 - Labelling Theory
The interactionist perspective on deviance and crime
Interactionists, also known as interpretivists, propose that deviance is defined by social reaction. Unlike other theories, interactionists suggest that deviants are not characteristically different from the rest of the population. They view deviance as socially constructed, varying across time and place.
Core ideas of the interactionist approach
- Socially constructed deviance - Deviance is not inherent in an act but is determined by how society responds to it. What is seen as deviant can change depending on time, place, and cultural context.
- No intrinsic difference - Deviants are not fundamentally different from others in society; it is the label applied to their behaviour that sets them apart.
- Focus on societal reaction - Rather than studying the causes of deviant behaviour, interactionists examine how certain actions become labelled as deviant and the consequences of this labelling.
The concept of labelling and its impact on identity
Labelling theory suggests that we form our identity by interpreting how others respond to us. A label can have positive or negative effects and helps define ourselves in our own eyes as well as in others' eyes.
How labelling shapes self-concept
- Formation of identity - Individuals develop their sense of self by interpreting the reactions of others. A label, whether positive or negative, becomes a key part of their identity or 'self-concept'.
- Influence of societal response - Being labelled as deviant can lead a person to internalise this identity, affecting their behaviour and interactions with others.
- Master status - A deviant label, such as 'criminal', can overshadow other aspects of a person's identity, becoming their primary defining characteristic in society's eyes.
The effects of being labelled as deviant on future behaviour
Once a person is labelled as deviant, the societal reaction can have significant consequences for their future actions. This label often perpetuates a cycle of deviance that is difficult to break.
Consequences of deviant labelling
- Deviant career - Being labelled as deviant can lead to increased deviant behaviour. If individuals face shame or rejection due to their label, they may return to criminal activities as a way to cope with social exclusion.
- Difficulty reintegrating - The label of 'criminal' is not easily removed. For example, ex-offenders often struggle to find employment after release from prison due to their stigmatised status.
- Impact of negative labelling on drug users - Research by Jock Young (1971) on drug users in Notting Hill showed that a negative societal response reinforced their deviant self-concept, leading to increased drug use as it became central to their identity.
- Mental health labelling - Erving Goffman (1961) highlighted how labelling someone as mentally ill forces them to conform to this negative identity, as society and psychiatric systems impose the label of 'mad'.
- Types of shaming - John Braithwaite (1989) distinguished between disintegrative shaming, which labels both the act and the person as deviant, leading to exclusion, and reintegrative shaming, which focuses only on the act, offering a chance for the individual to rejoin society.
Primary and secondary deviance as explained by Lemert
Edwin Lemert (1951) introduced the concepts of primary and secondary deviance to explain how initial acts of deviance can escalate due to societal reactions.
Distinguishing between primary and secondary deviance
- Primary deviance - This refers to initial acts of deviance that most people commit at some point in their lives. These acts are often minor and of little significance.
- Societal reaction - When society, or specific groups like family, peers, police, or media, react to an act by labelling the individual as deviant, it marks a turning point.
- Secondary deviance - Following the label, individuals may feel the weight of being seen as 'deviant' or 'criminal' and commit further deviant acts as a result.
The role of deviance amplification in escalating criminal behaviour
Deviance amplification is a process where social control can cause more deviance.
Mechanisms of deviance amplification
- Increased social control - A common response to deviance is to increase social control. This can lead to more deviance, which provokes more extensive social control, creating a continuing cycle.
- Media influence - The media plays a significant role in deviance amplification by influencing reaction to deviant acts.
- Impact of public reaction - The public reaction to a deviant label can be very powerful, sometimes driving individuals to suicide once their deviance has been discovered, as they fear how they will be treated by the public.
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