The role of advertising in psychology

Advertising involves campaigns designed to raise awareness of brands and products, often aiming to shift the attitudes and behaviours of specific target audiences.

The Yale model of communication

The Yale model of communication, developed from studies at Yale University, outlines factors that make persuasive messages more effective. It originally focused on "who said what to whom" but was later expanded by McGuire (1968) to include "how" and "to what effect". This model applies to advertising by analysing why certain ads change consumer attitudes, such as in health campaigns or product promotions.

Key components of the Yale model

• The source - Refers to the communicator, such as a celebrity or expert. Factors like credibility, expertise, authority, charisma, attractiveness, and popularity make the source more persuasive. Audiences are more likely to respond if they identify with the source.
• The message - This is the content being conveyed. A "hard sell" approach provides direct product information, compares pros and cons with rivals, and repeatedly showcases the product explicitly. In contrast, a "soft sell" is more subtle, using imagery and positive associations to link the product with the consumer's desired identity or lifestyle. Messages at the beginning or end of a sequence are often most memorable and effective.
• The audience - Characteristics of the recipients, including age, gender, cultural identity, level of education, and self-esteem. These influence how receptive people are to the message.
• The medium/channel - The method of delivery, such as television, radio, print, social media, product placement in films, or billboards.
• To what effect - Measures the outcome, focusing on receptivity and yielding. This is more likely if the audience pays attention, understands and accepts the message, and feels motivated to act.

Research evidence on the Yale model

Research supports elements of the model, particularly source credibility. For example, celebrity endorsements in India improved advert perceptions because the celebrities were seen as credible. However, over-exposure of celebrities who do not match the brand can lead to negative attitudes and reduced message clarity.

Types of advertising media

Advertising media are the platforms used to deliver messages, each with unique strengths and weaknesses that affect their impact on consumer behaviour.

Strengths and weaknesses of advertising media

Neuromarketing in advertising

Neuromarketing involves using physiological measures, such as electroencephalography (EEG) and eye-tracking, to assess responses to ads, packaging, or displays. This provides evidence-based insights for marketing strategies.

Research study: Ciceri et al. (2020)

• Aim - To investigate differences in brain activity, visual attention, and recognition when viewing adverts in print versus digital formats.
• Participants - Participants were divided into groups: one viewed a mock newspaper in print, another online on a desktop computer, and another on a tablet. Each group had 24 participants.
• Procedure - Participants viewed the mock newspaper in their assigned format. Eye-tracking measured the location and duration of visual fixations. EEG assessed frustration levels. One hour later, participants selected 25 adverts they recognised from a set of 50.
• Results - The desktop group showed the lowest average fixation time and recognition rates. The tablet group had the highest average fixation time and recognition rates. Frustration levels were similar for both digital groups (desktop and tablet).
• Conclusions - Less attention is paid to website adverts than print ones, possibly due to banner blindness. They are also less recognisable, suggesting reduced overall impact on consumers.
• Strengths - High replicability due to standardised procedures, such as consistent screen luminance, angle, size, and advert order. Objective measures like EEG and eye-tracking avoided biases like demand characteristics or social desirability bias, as they captured unconscious processes.
• Limitations - Low generalisability from a small sample of 24 per group. The study was conducted with Italian participants, so cultural differences could affect applicability elsewhere. Confounding variables, like differing screen sizes between tablets and desktops, reduced internal validity.

Lauterborn's 4Cs marketing mix model

Lauterborn's (1990) 4Cs model updates the older 4Ps model (McCarthy, 1960) by shifting focus from seller-centric to consumer-centric strategies.

Components of the 4Cs model

Evaluation of advertising models and research

Strengths

• The Yale model highlights practical factors like source credibility.
• Ciceri et al. (2020) used objective methods, enhancing reliability.

Weaknesses

• The Yale model lacks temporal validity, ignoring modern elements like e-commerce, product placement, influencer marketing, and buyer-to-buyer communication.
• It oversimplifies by not addressing low motivation in audiences.
• Ciceri et al. had low internal validity due to variables like screen size differences.

Issues and debates in advertising psychology

Applications to everyday life

Lauterborn's 4Cs treats consumers as active and diverse, encouraging businesses to explore their needs, unlike the passive view in the 4Ps. Findings from Ciceri et al. (2020) can guide decisions on allocating budgets between print and digital ads for better impact.

Cultural differences

Ciceri et al. (2020) used Italian participants, so replication in other cultures is needed to check if results hold, as advertising responses may vary by cultural norms.