Introduction to advertising styles and consumer responses

Advertising plays a key role in influencing consumer behaviour by presenting products in ways that appeal to different personality traits and experiences. Two main styles are hard sell and soft sell, which can interact differently with individual differences such as self-monitoring. Self-monitoring refers to the extent to which people observe and control their behaviour in social situations to fit in with others.

Hard sell and soft sell advertising

Hard sell advertising emphasises the quality, features, and practical benefits of a product, such as its performance or value for money. This approach is direct and fact-based, aiming to convince consumers through logical arguments.

Soft sell advertising, in contrast, focuses on the image, lifestyle, or emotional appeal associated with the product, often highlighting how it enhances the user's social status or appearance.

Self-monitoring and its role in advertising effectiveness

Self-monitoring is a personality trait measured on a continuum from high to low. High self-monitors are sensitive to social cues and adapt their behaviour to suit different situations, often prioritising how others perceive them. Low self-monitors, however, act based on their own beliefs and values, showing less concern for external impressions.

Key study: Snyder and DeBono (1985) on self-monitoring and advertising

This study examined how self-monitoring levels affect preferences for hard sell versus soft sell advertising, using shampoo as the product example. It built on earlier ideas about marketing styles, such as those from Fox (1984), who distinguished between image-focused and quality-focused approaches.

Aim and hypotheses

• Aim - To investigate the relationship between self-monitoring and responses to image-orientated (soft sell) versus quality-orientated (hard sell) advertising.
• Hypotheses - There were two main hypotheses:
  1. High self-monitors would show greater willingness to try a new shampoo when presented with image-orientated (soft sell) advertising compared to quality-orientated (hard sell) advertising.
  2. Low self-monitors would show greater willingness to try a new shampoo when presented with quality-orientated (hard sell) advertising compared to image-orientated (soft sell) advertising.

Method

• This was a laboratory experiment using a double-blind design, where neither participants nor researchers knew the self-monitoring classifications during data collection.
• It employed an independent measures design, with participants randomly allocated to conditions to minimise bias.
• Data was collected via self-reports using a psychometric scale, specifically the Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder, 1974), which measures self-monitoring levels.

Variables

• Independent variables - There were two main independent variables:
  • Type of advertising - image-orientated (focusing on appearance benefits) or quality-orientated (focusing on cleanliness and performance).
  • Self-monitoring level - high or low, determined by scores on the Self-Monitoring Scale.
• Dependent variable - Willingness to use the new shampoo, measured on a five-point scale from 'definitely not' to 'definitely yes', and converted to a percentage from 0 (not at all willing) to 100 (definitely willing).

Participants

• The sample consisted of 40 undergraduate psychology students from the University of Minnesota, USA.
• They were recruited using an opportunity sampling technique and received course credit for participation.

Procedure

1. Participants completed the Self-Monitoring Scale to assess their self-monitoring levels.
2. They were randomly assigned to receive either image-orientated or quality-orientated information about a new shampoo via a scripted telephone call.
3. During the call, the information was standardised for tone, gender of caller, and content to ensure consistency.
4. After the call, participants rated their willingness to try the shampoo using the self-report scale.

Controlled variables included the scripted nature of the calls and random allocation to reduce influences like prior interest in hair care products.

Ethics

• The study involved deception, as participants were told the call was for market research, which was untrue.
• There was no informed consent or right to withdraw, potentially leading to mistrust of future legitimate research calls.

Results

• For image-orientated messages, high self-monitors showed higher willingness to use the shampoo compared to low self-monitors.
• For quality-orientated messages, low self-monitors showed higher willingness to use the shampoo compared to high self-monitors. -These findings supported both hypotheses, indicating that advertising effectiveness depends on matching the style to the consumer's self-monitoring level.

Conclusions

• The study concluded that responsiveness to hard sell and soft sell advertising is influenced by the consumer's level of self-monitoring.
• High self-monitors are more persuaded by image-focused ads, while low self-monitors prefer quality-focused ones.

Product placement in films and its effects on consumer choice

Product placement involves featuring branded products within films or television shows to influence viewers subtly. This technique relies on psychological processes like mere exposure and reminders, which can increase familiarity and positive attitudes towards the product without direct advertising.

Mere exposure effect

The mere exposure effect occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus, such as a product in a film, increases positive attitudes towards it. This happens because familiarity breeds liking, even if the exposure is subconscious.

For example, product placement without explicit reminders can enhance positive attitudes through implicit memory, as supported by Ruggieri and Boca (2013). However, cultural differences exist; Gould et al. (2000) found that mere exposure increased purchase intentions more for US participants than for French or Austrian ones.

Reminders effect

The reminders effect builds on familiarity from repeated viewings, making the product easier to process mentally (known as processing fluency). This ease leads to positive emotions and greater liking.

Key study: Auty and Lewis (2004) on product placement in children

This research explored how product placement in films affects children's choices, focusing on implicit memory and the role of reminders from prior viewings.

Aim

To investigate the effect of product placement on children's selection of branded products, particularly cola drinks featured in a film clip.

Method

This was a laboratory experiment with children aged 6 to 12 years.

Participants were randomly allocated to watch a clip from the film Home Alone, which featured either:

• Pizza and Pepsi, or
• Macaroni and milk.

After viewing, they were interviewed about the clip and prompted to name the cola brand if not mentioned spontaneously. They were then offered a choice between Pepsi or Coca-Cola.

Participants

The sample included children aged 6-12, divided into younger (6-7) and older (11-12) groups.

Procedure

1. Children watched the assigned film clip.
2. They participated in an interview where researchers asked about the clip and prompted for brand recall if needed.
3. Finally, they selected their preferred drink from Pepsi or Coca-Cola.

Results

• In the 'Pepsi' group, 62% chose Pepsi, compared to 38% in the 'milk' group.
• Older children (11-12) named Pepsi when prompted 67% of the time and required fewer prompts (average 2.1) than younger children (6-7), who named it 50% of the time and needed more prompts (average 4.4).
• Younger children were as likely as older ones to choose Pepsi.
• Children who had seen the film before were more likely to recall the brand without prompting and choose Pepsi.

Conclusions

Viewing products in films increases the likelihood of choosing that product later, due to implicit memory. The effect is stronger with repeated exposures (reminders), as prior viewings enhance recall and preference.

Evaluation of research on advertising-consumer interaction

Studies like Snyder and DeBono (1985) and Auty and Lewis (2004) provide insights into how advertising influences consumers, but they have strengths and limitations.

Strengths

• Validity: Snyder and DeBono used a double-blind design to prevent researcher bias, as experimenters were unaware of participants' self-monitoring levels. Auty and Lewis randomly allocated children to groups, controlling for participant variables like age or prior preferences.
• Quantitative data: Both studies collected objective data, such as willingness ratings on scales and counts of drink choices, allowing for reliable comparisons and statistical analysis.

Weaknesses

• Validity: In Auty and Lewis, prior drink preferences (e.g., liking Coca-Cola more) could act as a confounding variable. Additionally, the interview questions might have suggested Pepsi as the 'correct' choice, influencing selections.
• Self-reports: Snyder and DeBono relied on telephone responses, which might include socially desirable answers rather than reflecting actual behaviour, such as trying the shampoo.

Limitations

Both studies used opportunity samples (university students and children), limiting generalisability to broader populations. Cultural factors, as seen in Gould et al. (2000), suggest results may vary across countries.

Issues and debates in advertising research

Determinism versus free will

Responses to advertising may seem deterministic, as personality traits like self-monitoring can predict preferences for hard or soft sell styles. However, self-monitoring varies by situation, and consumers exercise free will in purchases, making behaviour hard to predict fully.

Application to everyday life

Understanding these interactions can improve advertising strategies, such as targeting campaigns to subgroups (e.g., image-focused ads for high self-monitors). Societal benefits include regulations like banning product placement in children's films or for high-sugar products in UK films to protect vulnerable groups.

Use of children in research

In Auty and Lewis, children were observed without full awareness, raising ethical concerns about deception, even with parental consent. This highlights the need for careful ethical considerations when studying minors.