Key facts and dates

The Hundred Years War was a prolonged conflict between England and France from 1337 to 1453, driven by territorial disputes and royal claims. Although marked by periods of truce, it featured decisive battles that shifted control of French lands and highlighted evolving military tactics.

Timeline of key events

• 1066 – William I conquers England while controlling Normandy, establishing English claims in France.
• 1154-1189 – Henry II expands English territories in France, including Anjou and Aquitaine.
• 1204 – King John loses Normandy and Anjou, fuelling long-term English desires to reclaim lands.
• 1337 – Edward III declares war on France, starting the Hundred Years War.
• 1346 – English victory at Crécy, showcasing the longbow's effectiveness.
• 1356 – Battle of Poitiers leads to capture of the French king.
• 1415 – Henry V wins at Agincourt despite being outnumbered.
• 1429 – Joan of Arc lifts the siege of Orléans, turning the tide for France.
• 1453 – French victory at Castillon ends the war, leaving England with only Calais.

Long-term causes of the Hundred Years War

The Hundred Years War stemmed from deep-rooted territorial and dynastic issues between England and France. These long-term causes built up over centuries, creating ongoing tensions that eventually led to open conflict.

English territorial claims in France

• William I's conquest in 1066 - William, already Duke of Normandy in France, became King of England, linking the two countries through shared rulership and lands.
• Henry II's expansions (1154-1189) - As William's great-grandson, Henry inherited Anjou from his father and gained Aquitaine through marriage, controlling large parts of France and strengthening English influence.
• Losses under King John in 1204 - England lost Normandy and Anjou to France, leaving only Aquitaine; this defeat left English monarchs determined to reclaim their former territories, fostering resentment and ambition.

These historical claims created a foundation of rivalry, as English kings viewed parts of France as rightful possessions. This set the stage for later conflicts, with each generation seeking to restore lost power.

Short-term causes leading to the outbreak in 1337

By the early 14th century, immediate disputes escalated the long-standing tensions into war. These short-term causes involved personal claims, alliances, and territorial threats during Edward III's reign.

Key triggers under Edward III

• Edward III's accession in 1327 - Edward became King of England, inheriting ambitions to expand influence in France.
• French succession crisis in 1328 - When the French king (Edward's uncle) died without a son, Edward claimed the throne through his mother; instead, it went to Philip VI, a cousin, denying Edward's rights.
• French support for Scotland - France promised aid to the Scots in their wars against England, threatening Edward's northern borders and provoking hostility.
• Dispute over Aquitaine - Philip VI claimed this remaining English territory in France, infuriating Edward and prompting him to prepare for war.

As a result, Edward declared war in 1337, marking the start of the Hundred Years War, which lasted until 1453 despite periods of truce.

English military successes and the role of the longbow

The English achieved early victories through superior tactics and weaponry, particularly in the 1340s and 1350s. This period of success allowed them to capture key territories and weaken French forces.

The longbow

The longbow was a powerful weapon made from yew wood that could fire arrows rapidly and accurately over long distances. By the 1340s, Edward III's officials recruited skilled archers nationwide. Unlike the slower French crossbows, longbows enabled English archers to outpace and overwhelm enemies, proving decisive in open battles.

Early English victories

• Battle of Crécy (1346) - English archers dominated, leading to a comfortable win.
• Siege of Calais (1346-1347) - After Crécy, the English besieged and captured this port city after a year, using it as a strategic base for further operations.
• Battle of Poitiers (1356) - Following a pause due to the Black Death (a devastating plague that affected both nations), the English secured another major victory, capturing the French king.

These successes demonstrated how innovative weaponry and leadership gave England an initial edge, though the war's momentum would later shift.

Important English military leaders

England's early advantages were bolstered by exceptional commanders who led troops to victory against superior numbers. Two figures stand out for their strategic brilliance and impact on the war.

Edward the Black Prince

• Background and nickname - Eldest son of Edward III, known as the Black Prince possibly due to his dark armour.
• Key achievements - He commanded forces at Crécy (1346) and the siege of Calais, then won decisively at Poitiers (1356), capturing the French king and demanding a massive ransom that France could not fully pay.
• Impact - His victories weakened France by leaving it leaderless and financially strained, boosting English morale and territorial gains.

Henry V

• Reign and qualities - King from 1413 to 1422, renowned as a great soldier with strong tactical skills.
• Battle of Agincourt (1415) - Despite facing a French army five times bigger, Henry achieved victory in less than three hours.
• Broader control - This win allowed him to dominate most of northern France, expanding English holdings significantly.

These leaders exemplified the military prowess that sustained English efforts, though their successes were not permanent.

Major turning points and French resurgence

After initial English gains, the war's direction changed dramatically in the 1420s, with French forces regaining ground through inspired leadership. This shift marked the beginning of England's decline.

The siege of Orléans (1428-1429)

• English assault - English troops besieged Orléans, France's strongest fortress, holding the upper hand for over six months.
• Arrival of Joan of Arc - In April 1429, a peasant girl named Joan claimed divine visions urging her to save France; she led troops, rallied the French army, and drove back the English, securing a vital victory.
• Consequences - Joan's success shifted momentum, allowing France to gradually expel English forces from their territories.

Final defeat at Castillon (1453)

• English counterattack - Under Henry VI (ruled 1422-1461), England sent troops to reclaim lands but suffered a crushing loss at Castillon.
• Outcome - This battle ended the war, with England retaining only Calais as its territory in France.

The war was not continuous; long truces interrupted the fighting, sometimes lasting months or years, as tensions ebbed and flowed.

Outcomes and significance of the Hundred Years War

The Hundred Years War concluded with France emerging stronger, while England faced territorial losses and internal challenges. Its legacy influenced both nations' development.

England lost all French lands except Calais, failing to reclaim historical territories like Normandy and Aquitaine. Despite its name, the war's intermittent nature showed how diplomacy and exhaustion often paused hostilities, but ultimately, England could not sustain its early successes.