The concepts of universalism and relativism in understanding human behaviour

Universalism and relativism are two contrasting viewpoints that shape how psychologists interpret human behaviour and thinking across different cultures.

Defining universalism and relativism

• Universalism - This viewpoint holds that human behaviour and thought processes are fundamentally the same worldwide, suggesting that findings from one group can be applied globally.
• Relativism - In contrast, this perspective argues that behaviour and thinking are heavily influenced by cultural contexts, meaning they cannot be generalised across all cultures.
• Cultural bias - This occurs when research from one cultural group is incorrectly assumed to apply universally, often due to ethnocentrism, where a researcher views their own culture as the standard or norm.

Cultural relativism and its implications for social norms and syndromes

Cultural relativism is a specific form of relativism that challenges the idea of universal 'rights' and 'wrongs'. It emphasises that behaviours and beliefs must be understood within their specific cultural settings before any judgements are made.

Key aspects of cultural relativism

• Contextual behaviour - Individual actions should be evaluated based on the cultural environment in which they occur, rather than against a presumed global standard.
• Social norms variation - What is considered acceptable or desirable in one culture might be viewed negatively in another, demonstrating the culturally relative nature of norms.
• Culture-bound syndromes - Certain psychological conditions are unique to specific cultures due to distinct environmental or social factors. For instance, among the Inuit, a condition known as kayak angst involves an intense fear of drowning at sea, which is not observed in other cultural groups.

Emic and etic perspectives in cross-cultural research

When conducting research across cultures, psychologists adopt different approaches that reflect either a universalist or relativist stance.

Differences between emic and etic perspectives

• Emic perspective - This approach involves studying a culture from within, using a relativist viewpoint. It focuses on understanding behaviours and beliefs as they are perceived by members of that culture.
• Etic perspective - This approach examines a culture from an outsider's viewpoint, often with a universalist mindset, assuming that certain behaviours or principles apply across all cultures.
• Risk of imposed etic - An imposed etic happens when researchers use methods or tools from their own culture that are not suitable for another, leading to invalid conclusions. This often occurs when studies originally conducted in Western settings are replicated elsewhere without cultural adaptation.

Key research on cultural bias and imposed etic in psychology

Several studies have highlighted the challenges of cultural bias in psychological research.

Henrich et al. (2010) on cross-cultural cognitive research

• Method - Analysed existing cross-cultural studies in cognitive psychology, focusing on areas such as visual perception, fairness, cooperation, spatial reasoning, moral reasoning, and self-concepts.
• Results - Identified significant differences in cognitive processes across cultures. Much of the research was conducted on participants from WEIRD (white, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic) backgrounds, who are not representative of the global population.
• Conclusions - The reliance on WEIRD participants often leads to an imposed etic, resulting in conclusions that do not apply universally.
• Evaluation - Highlights the need for broader, more diverse samples in psychological research to avoid cultural bias.

Mead (1935) on gender roles in Papua New Guinea

• Method - Conducted ethnographic research on three distinct tribes in Papua New Guinea to explore gender role differences.
• Results - Found varying gender roles across the tribes, suggesting that these roles are socially constructed rather than biologically determined. Later in life, after personal changes in her circumstances, Mead shifted to a belief in biological influences on gender roles.
• Conclusions - Demonstrates how a researcher's own cultural and personal perspectives can influence the interpretation of findings.

Evaluations and practical applications of cultural considerations in research

Considering cultural relativism and bias in psychological research has both strengths and limitations.

Positive aspects of cultural awareness

• Impact of globalisation - Increasing interconnectedness may reduce cultural differences over time, potentially decreasing the likelihood of an imposed etic in research.
• Researcher reflexivity - Many modern studies incorporate an awareness of cultural relativism, with researchers openly acknowledging their own cultural backgrounds to minimise bias.

Challenges in cross-cultural research

• Researcher influence - The cultural background of a researcher can affect how participants from other cultures respond, creating a barrier that is difficult to overcome.
• Status of psychology - Variations in how science and psychology are perceived across cultures can influence participant behaviour, leading to biased results that are hard to account for.

Practical implications of addressing cultural bias

• Culture-fair methods - Recognising the potential for bias, such as an imposed etic, has led to the development of research tools and methods designed to be culturally neutral, ensuring more valid cross-cultural comparisons.
• Intersection with gender bias - Cultural perspectives often intersect with gender bias, as societal views on gender roles can shape research conclusions, necessitating a dual awareness in study design.