Key facts and dates

German rearmament and withdrawal from the League of Nations between 1933 and 1935 marked a significant challenge to the post-World War I order established by the Treaty of Versailles. This timeline captures the critical events that reshaped European power dynamics during this period.

Timeline of key events:

• October 1933 – Germany withdraws from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations.
• March 1935 – Hitler publicly announces the existence of the Luftwaffe, violating Versailles.
• March 1935 – Reintroduction of conscription in Germany, creating a 550,000-man army.
• April 1935 – Formation of the Stresa Front by Britain, France, and Italy to condemn rearmament.
• April 1935 – League of Nations formally condemns German rearmament.
• June 1935 – Anglo-German Naval Agreement signed, allowing German naval strength up to 35% of British levels.

Hitler's initial steps to undermine the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed strict military limitations on Germany to prevent future aggression after World War I. These included a cap on the army at 100,000 men, a ban on conscription, no air force, and severe naval restrictions. However, from 1933, Adolf Hitler, as the newly appointed Chancellor, took deliberate steps to dismantle these restrictions and assert German power.

Early actions against Versailles restrictions:

• Withdrawal from international bodies - In October 1933, Hitler withdrew Germany from the Disarmament Conference, rejecting negotiations aimed at maintaining global military balance. Simultaneously, Germany exited the League of Nations, an organisation meant to ensure collective security, signalling a refusal to adhere to international oversight.
• Motivations for withdrawal - These moves were driven by Hitler's determination to restore German military strength and national pride, viewing the Versailles Treaty as a humiliating imposition. By stepping away from these forums, he avoided diplomatic constraints on his rearmament plans.

The progression of German rearmament under Hitler

Rearmament in Germany did not begin with Hitler; secret efforts to rebuild military capacity had been underway during the Weimar Republic era (1919-1933). However, under Hitler's leadership, these programmes were significantly expanded and brought into the open, directly challenging the post-war order.

Development of rearmament programmes:

• Secret rearmament under Weimar - During the 1920s, the Weimar governments covertly trained pilots in civilian guise and developed military technology in collaboration with other nations, such as the Soviet Union, to bypass Versailles restrictions.
• Hitler's acceleration and public stance - After 1933, Hitler intensified these efforts by increasing military funding, expanding industrial production for weapons, and eventually publicising the rearmament process. This shift from secrecy to openness was a bold statement of defiance, aiming to rally domestic support by showcasing Germany's resurgence.

Key violations of Versailles through conscription and the Luftwaffe

By 1935, Hitler took decisive actions that openly breached the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. These steps not only strengthened Germany's armed forces but also tested the resolve of the international community.

Specific violations and their significance:

• Announcement of the Luftwaffe (March 1935) - Hitler revealed the existence of the Luftwaffe, Germany's air force, which had been secretly developed. The Treaty of Versailles explicitly prohibited Germany from having an air force, making this a clear and public violation.
• Reintroduction of conscription (March 1935) - Hitler reinstituted compulsory military service, expanding the army to 550,000 men, far exceeding the 100,000-man limit set by Versailles. This move aimed to create a large, ready force, undermining the treaty's intent to keep Germany demilitarised.
• Strategic implications - These actions demonstrated Hitler's intention to rebuild Germany as a military power, directly challenging the security framework established after World War I and heightening tensions in Europe.

International responses to German rearmament

The international community reacted to Germany's breaches of the Versailles Treaty with a mix of condemnation and pragmatic agreements. However, the responses lacked the unity and strength needed to enforce compliance, revealing weaknesses in collective security.

Reactions from key players and organisations:

• Formation of the Stresa Front (April 1935) - Britain, France, and Italy formed the Stresa Front, a coalition condemning German rearmament and pledging to uphold the Treaty of Versailles. This alliance aimed to present a united stance against German aggression but proved short-lived due to differing national interests.
• League of Nations condemnation (April 1935) - The League formally criticised Germany's actions as violations of international agreements. However, without enforcement mechanisms or the participation of major powers like the United States, its response had little practical impact.
• Anglo-German Naval Agreement (June 1935) - In a surprising move, Britain signed a bilateral agreement with Germany, allowing the German navy to grow to 35% of British naval strength. While intended to limit German naval expansion, this deal effectively legitimised rearmament, undermined the Stresa Front, and weakened collective action against Hitler.

Reasons for limited consequences:

• Lack of unified action - Disagreements among Allied powers, such as Britain's focus on appeasement and France's internal political instability, prevented a strong, coordinated response to German violations.
• Economic and political constraints - Many nations were still recovering from the Great Depression and were reluctant to risk conflict or economic sanctions that could further destabilise their economies.
• Underestimation of Hitler's ambitions - Some leaders believed rearmament was a limited goal to restore German pride rather than a step towards broader aggression, leading to a policy of leniency that emboldened further challenges.

Consequences and impact on European security

German rearmament and withdrawal from the League of Nations had profound effects on the European balance of power. These actions not only strengthened Germany but also created widespread insecurity among neighbouring states, setting the stage for further conflict.

Effects on Europe and beyond:

• Shift in balance of power - Germany's growing military capacity altered the dynamics of European power, reducing the relative strength of France and other nations that had relied on Versailles to contain German aggression.
• Security concerns for neighbouring states - Countries like Poland and Czechoslovakia, bordering Germany, felt increasingly threatened by the rapid military buildup, prompting them to seek alliances or strengthen their own defences.
• Encouragement of further challenges - The lack of serious consequences for breaching Versailles encouraged Hitler to pursue more aggressive policies, such as the remilitarisation of the Rhineland in 1936, further destabilising the post-war order.
• Erosion of collective security - The failure of the League of Nations and the Stresa Front to enforce compliance highlighted the weaknesses of international mechanisms designed to prevent conflict, paving the way for the escalation of tensions leading to World War II.