Key facts and dates

Plutarco Elías Calles's leadership during his presidency (1924-1928) and the subsequent Maximato period (1928-1934) marked a significant phase in Mexico's post-revolutionary history. His policies and political innovations shaped the nation's trajectory, though not without conflict and criticism.

Timeline of key events

• 1924-1928 – Plutarco Elías Calles serves as President of Mexico, pushing radical revolutionary reforms.
• 1926-1929 – Cristero War erupts due to aggressive anti-clerical policies, causing 90,000 deaths.
• 1929 – Formation of the National Revolutionary Party (PNR), later becoming the PRI, to institutionalise the revolution.
• 1928-1934 – Maximato period, with Calles as Jefe Máximo controlling three successive presidents.
• 1936 – Lázaro Cárdenas forces Calles into exile, ending his political dominance.

Plutarco Elías Calles's presidency and radical revolutionary policies

Plutarco Elías Calles assumed the presidency of Mexico in 1924, following Álvaro Obregón, and pursued a more radical interpretation of the revolutionary goals set by the 1910 Mexican Revolution. His tenure was marked by bold reforms aimed at transforming Mexican society and consolidating power in the hands of the revolutionary elite.

Key reforms under Calles's presidency

• Land distribution - Calles accelerated land reform, redistributing around 3 million hectares to peasants. This was a significant step towards addressing historical inequalities in land ownership, though implementation was uneven and often met resistance from large landowners.
• Support for labour - He encouraged the organisation of labour unions and supported strikes to improve workers' rights and conditions. This strengthened his support among the working class but created tensions with industrialists.
• Nationalist economic policies - Calles promoted policies to reduce foreign influence in Mexico's economy, focusing on national control over resources and infrastructure. This was part of a broader push for economic independence.
• Anti-clerical measures - His aggressive enforcement of the 1917 Constitution's anti-clerical provisions aimed to diminish the Catholic Church's influence in public life, leading to significant conflict, as detailed in the next section.

The Cristero War and its impact on church-state relations

Calles's stringent anti-clerical policies, which sought to limit the Catholic Church's role in education and politics, triggered a violent backlash known as the Cristero War (1926-1929). This conflict highlighted the deep divisions within Mexican society over the role of religion.

Causes and consequences of the Cristero War

• Origins of the conflict - Calles enforced laws banning religious education, closing church schools, and restricting priests' political activities. This provoked outrage among devout Catholics, particularly in western states like Jalisco and Michoacán.
• Scale of violence - Catholic rebels, known as Cristeros, launched a guerrilla war against the government, resulting in approximately 90,000 deaths over three years. The conflict disrupted rural communities and strained government resources.
• Resolution and aftermath - By 1929, a negotiated settlement, brokered with U.S. mediation, eased tensions, allowing limited religious practices. However, church-state relations remained fragile, and Calles continued to manage this delicate balance during the subsequent Maximato period.

Formation of the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) and its political significance

In 1929, Calles established the National Revolutionary Party (PNR), which later evolved into the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). This was a transformative step in institutionalising the Mexican Revolution and ensuring political stability.

Key features and impacts of the PNR

• Institutionalising the revolution - The PNR was designed to embody revolutionary ideals, providing a unified platform for the diverse factions that had emerged post-1910.
• Incorporation of social groups - It integrated labour unions, peasant leagues, and the military into its structure, creating a broad base of support and reducing internal conflict.
• Mechanism for power transfer - The party established a system for the peaceful transfer of power within the revolutionary elite, preventing the coups and instability that had previously plagued Mexico.
• Long-term dominance - The PNR, as the PRI, dominated Mexican politics for seven decades, shaping a political monopoly that offered stability but limited genuine democratic competition.

The Maximato period and Calles's control as Jefe Máximo

Following the assassination of Álvaro Obregón in 1928, Calles did not seek re-election but instead wielded power behind the scenes during the Maximato (1928-1934). As Jefe Máximo (Maximum Chief), he controlled three successive presidents, centralising political authority.

Structure and policies of the Maximato

• Puppet presidencies - Calles handpicked and influenced the administrations of Emilio Portes Gil (1928-1930), Pascual Ortiz Rubio (1930-1932), and Abelardo Rodríguez (1932-1934), effectively ruling through them.
• Continuation of reforms - Land reform continued at a slower pace, with Calles balancing peasant demands against the need for economic stability. He also managed lingering church-state tensions post-Cristero War.
• Centralisation of power - Using the PNR, Calles consolidated control over political factions, ensuring loyalty to his vision while accumulating significant personal wealth, which raised questions of corruption.
• Economic and social challenges - The Great Depression hit Mexico hard, necessitating new economic strategies. Strikes and labour unrest grew as working conditions worsened, while peasants pressed for faster land redistribution.

Criticisms of Calles's leadership

• Conservative drift - Critics argued that Calles moved away from revolutionary ideals, adopting more conservative policies to maintain power and appease elites, thus betraying the original goals of the revolution.
• Corruption allegations - His personal enrichment during the Maximato fuelled perceptions of hypocrisy, undermining his credibility among those who expected revolutionary leaders to prioritise public good over personal gain.

Challenges during the Maximato and the conflict with Lázaro Cárdenas

The Maximato faced numerous challenges, both economic and political, which eventually led to Calles's downfall. His conflict with Lázaro Cárdenas, who became president in 1934, marked the end of his dominance.

Major challenges of the Maximato

• Impact of the Great Depression - The global economic crisis severely affected Mexico, leading to unemployment, reduced exports, and fiscal strain. Calles's government struggled to adapt, increasing public dissatisfaction.
• Labour and peasant unrest - Deteriorating working conditions sparked strikes, while peasants grew frustrated with the slow pace of land reform, putting pressure on Calles's administration.
• Growing criticism - Many within the revolutionary coalition began to see Calles's prolonged influence as a betrayal of democratic principles, accusing him of creating a personal dictatorship rather than fostering genuine reform.

Conflict with Lázaro Cárdenas

• Cárdenas's independent base - Lázaro Cárdenas, elected president in 1934, built strong support among workers and peasants by promising authentic revolutionary reforms, distancing himself from Calles's conservative tendencies.
• Break with Calles - Cárdenas asserted his independence by implementing policies Calles opposed, such as accelerated land reform and nationalisation of industries, directly challenging the Jefe Máximo's authority.
• Exile of Calles - In 1936, Cárdenas forced Calles into exile, ending the Maximato and marking a significant shift towards more progressive policies. This event symbolised a return to the revolutionary ideals Calles was seen to have abandoned.

Legacy of Calles and the Maximato: consolidation or betrayal?

The period of Calles's influence raises complex questions about whether his actions consolidated or betrayed the Mexican Revolution. His institutional innovations provided stability, but at a significant cost to democratic ideals.

Assessing Calles's impact

• Political stability - The creation of the PNR (later PRI) offered a framework for peaceful power transitions and incorporated diverse social groups, preventing the chaos of earlier decades.
• Centralisation vs. democracy - While stability was achieved, the political monopoly of the PNR stifled opposition and democratic competition, creating a system where power was concentrated within a single party.
• Revolutionary ideals - Calles's early radical reforms, like land distribution and labour support, aligned with revolutionary goals, but his later conservative drift and personal enrichment led many to view the Maximato as a betrayal of those same principles.
• Long-term influence - The structures Calles established endured, shaping Mexican politics for decades, but they also sowed seeds of future discontent by prioritising control over genuine social transformation.