Key facts and dates

The African National Congress (ANC) evolved dramatically between 1948 and 1964, becoming a central force in the fight against apartheid in South Africa. This period saw significant campaigns, internal shifts, and adaptations to severe government repression, shaping the ANC's role as a leading liberation movement.

Timeline of key events

• 1948 – National Party comes to power, introducing apartheid; ANC begins to intensify resistance.
• 1952 – Defiance Campaign launched, marking a shift to mass nonviolent protest.
• 1955 – Congress of the People adopts the Freedom Charter, outlining a vision for a democratic South Africa.
• 1959 – Africanist faction breaks away to form the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) over multiracialism debates.
• 1960 – Sharpeville Massacre occurs during anti-pass protests (led by PAC); ANC is banned and moves underground; Oliver Tambo goes into exile.
• 1961 – Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) formed, initiating armed struggle while ANC maintains a nonviolent stance.

Transformation of the ANC into a mass-based liberation movement

During the late 1940s and early 1950s, the African National Congress (ANC) underwent a profound transformation. Originally founded in 1912 as a moderate organisation advocating for African rights, the ANC evolved into a mass-based liberation movement in response to the oppressive apartheid policies introduced by the National Party in 1948. This shift involved mobilising large segments of the population to actively resist racial segregation and discrimination.

Factors driving the transformation

• Response to apartheid - The introduction of apartheid laws, which enforced strict racial segregation and denied basic rights to non-white South Africans, galvanised the ANC to adopt more assertive strategies to challenge the regime.
• Youth League influence - The ANC Youth League, formed in 1944, played a crucial role by pushing for radical action and mass mobilisation, injecting new energy and ideas into the organisation.
• Focus on grassroots support - The ANC expanded its reach beyond elite circles to include workers, students, and rural communities, creating a broad base of support that strengthened its position as a leading voice against apartheid.

Key campaigns and strategies of resistance (1948-1964)

The ANC employed a series of major campaigns during this period to challenge apartheid policies and rally public opposition. These initiatives were rooted in nonviolent resistance initially, aiming to disrupt the system while building national and international awareness.

Major campaigns of resistance

• Defiance Campaign (1952) - This campaign encouraged mass civil disobedience against unjust apartheid laws, such as pass laws and segregation in public spaces. Thousands of volunteers courted arrest by defying these regulations, overwhelming the judicial system and drawing global attention to South Africa's racial injustices.
• Congress of the People and Freedom Charter (1955) - Held in Kliptown, this event brought together diverse groups to draft the Freedom Charter, a visionary document demanding equality, democracy, and land reform. It served as a unifying manifesto for the anti-apartheid struggle, articulating a future free from racial oppression.
• Anti-pass protests leading to Sharpeville (1960) - While the specific 1960 campaign was led by the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), the ANC had long opposed pass laws, which required black South Africans to carry identity documents restricting their movement. The Sharpeville Massacre, where police killed 69 protesters, marked a turning point, intensifying resistance and highlighting the brutality of the regime.

Strategy of multiracial cooperation

The ANC forged alliances with other anti-apartheid groups, including the South African Indian Congress (SAIC), South African Coloured People's Organisation (SACPO), Congress of Democrats (COD), and South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU). This multiracial coalition, known as the Congress Alliance, aimed to unite diverse communities against apartheid, amplifying their collective impact through coordinated action and shared goals.

Internal debates and organisational challenges

The ANC faced significant internal tensions during this period as it navigated ideological differences and strategic choices. These debates shaped its direction and led to splits that influenced the broader liberation movement.

Key internal conflicts

• Africanist critique and PAC breakaway (1959) - A faction within the ANC, known as the Africanists, opposed the multiracial approach of the Congress Alliance, arguing for a strictly African-led movement. This disagreement led to the formation of the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), which split from the ANC in 1959, creating a rival liberation group with a more exclusive focus.
• Nonviolence versus violence debate - While the ANC initially committed to nonviolent resistance, the escalating brutality of the apartheid regime prompted discussions about adopting more confrontational tactics. This tension became central after the 1960 banning of the ANC, as some members questioned whether peaceful protest could achieve meaningful change.
• Relationship with the South African Communist Party (SACP) - The ANC's alliance with the SACP, which advocated for socialist principles, caused friction among members wary of communist influence. Despite this, the partnership provided ideological and logistical support, strengthening the ANC's resistance efforts.

Shift to armed struggle and underground operations post-1960

The year 1960 marked a critical turning point for the ANC as government repression intensified. Following the Sharpeville Massacre and the subsequent banning of the organisation, the ANC was forced to adapt its strategies to survive and continue the fight against apartheid.

Adaptation to repression

• Banning and underground operations (1960) - The South African government outlawed the ANC, making public activities illegal. In response, the ANC shifted to underground operations, establishing secret networks to coordinate resistance and maintain communication among members.
• Formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) (1961) - Recognising the limitations of nonviolence in the face of extreme state violence, the ANC established Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), its armed wing. MK initiated a campaign of sabotage targeting government infrastructure, while the ANC officially maintained a nonviolent stance to preserve its moral authority and international support.

Leadership continuity and international networks during repression

Despite severe repression, including arrests and restrictions, the ANC demonstrated remarkable resilience through effective leadership and the establishment of international connections. These efforts ensured the organisation's survival and relevance during a challenging era.

Leadership under pressure

• Albert Luthuli's presidency - As ANC president from 1952 to 1967, Luthuli provided steady leadership despite being restricted by the government through house arrest and bans on public speaking. His commitment to nonviolence earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1960, enhancing the ANC's global profile.
• Succession and external mission - Oliver Tambo, a key ANC leader, went into exile in 1960 to establish an external mission. Operating from bases in neighbouring African countries and later in Europe, Tambo mobilised international support, ensuring the ANC's voice was heard on the global stage.

Building resilience through networks

• Domestic and international loyalty - Despite being banned, the ANC retained strong loyalty among South Africans through clandestine networks and continued to position itself as the primary liberation movement, overshadowing rivals like the PAC in influence.
• Military training abroad - The ANC sent members to newly independent African states and socialist countries for military training, preparing them for armed struggle through MK. This access to resources and expertise bolstered the organisation's capacity to resist.
• Relationships with supportive states - Ties with African nations and socialist bloc countries provided safe havens, funding, and diplomatic backing, crucial for sustaining the ANC's operations during its underground phase.