Key facts and dates

The conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro between 1531 and 1533 marked a pivotal moment in the Spanish colonisation of South America, leading to the rapid collapse of one of the largest indigenous empires. This timeline captures the critical events of Pizarro's campaign and its aftermath.

Timeline of key events

• 1524-1528 – Pizarro explores the Peruvian coast, gathering information on the Inca Empire.
• c.1527 – Death of Inca ruler Huayna Capac, possibly from smallpox, triggering civil war.
• 1529-1532 – Inca civil war between Atahualpa and Huáscar weakens the empire.
• 1531 – Pizarro departs for conquest with 168 men and 27 horses.
• 16 November 1532 – Ambush at Cajamarca; Atahualpa captured, thousands of Incas killed.
• 26 July 1533 – Atahualpa executed despite ransom of gold and silver.
• November 1533 – Spanish forces enter Cuzco, install puppet ruler Manco Inca.
• 1535 – Founding of Lima as the Spanish coastal capital.
• 1541 – Pizarro assassinated amid conflicts among Spanish factions.

Francisco Pizarro's early explorations and preparations

Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador, laid the groundwork for the conquest of the Inca Empire long before his decisive campaign. His initial explorations along the Peruvian coast provided crucial knowledge of the region and its wealth, fuelling his ambition to conquer the vast empire.

Early explorations and motivations

• Coastal expeditions (1524-1528) - Pizarro conducted several voyages along the western coast of South America, encountering signs of a wealthy civilisation through trade goods and stories of gold. These journeys confirmed the existence of the Inca Empire and its riches.
• Recruitment and authorisation - Inspired by the success of Hernán Cortés in Mexico, Pizarro sought royal permission from the Spanish Crown to conquer the region. He recruited men with promises of wealth and glory, securing official backing to claim lands for Spain.
• Strategic planning - Pizarro's persistence during these early years, despite harsh conditions and limited resources, built a foundation of experience and alliances with other Spanish adventurers eager to exploit new territories.

The context of the Inca civil war and its impact

The Inca Empire, spanning much of western South America, was a formidable power before internal divisions created vulnerabilities. By the late 1520s, the empire faced a devastating succession crisis that fractured its unity at a critical moment.

Causes and effects of the civil war

• Death of Huayna Capac (c.1527) - The Inca ruler, known as the Sapa Inca (meaning "unique Inca" or supreme leader), died possibly from smallpox, a disease brought by European contact. His death left no clear successor, sparking conflict.
• Rivalry between Atahualpa and Huáscar (1529-1532) - Huayna Capac's sons, Atahualpa (based in the north) and Huáscar (based in the south), fought for control of the empire. This civil war divided loyalties among Inca nobles and armies, weakening central authority.
• Impact on the empire - The conflict drained resources, destabilised regions, and created factions among indigenous groups, some of whom later allied with the Spanish to settle old scores against Atahualpa's forces.

The expedition of 1531 and the ambush at Cajamarca

With the Inca Empire in disarray, Pizarro launched his conquest with a remarkably small force. His strategic decisions and ruthless tactics during this campaign exploited the empire's divisions to devastating effect.

Launch of the expedition

• Departure in 1531 - Pizarro set out from Panama with just 168 men and 27 horses, a tiny contingent compared to the vast Inca armies. Despite the odds, his men were equipped with steel weapons, armour, and firearms, giving them a technological edge.
• March into the Andes - Pizarro's force trekked through rugged terrain, reaching the Andean highlands by late 1532. Their journey demonstrated resilience and determination to confront the Inca heartland.

The ambush at Cajamarca

• Arrival and invitation (November 1532) - Pizarro reached the town of Cajamarca, where Atahualpa, fresh from victory over Huáscar, was encamped with a large retinue. Atahualpa, underestimating the Spanish threat, invited Pizarro to meet him.
• Attack on 16 November 1532 - In a calculated ambush, Pizarro's men attacked during the meeting, using cavalry charges, cannons, and firearms to slaughter thousands of Inca warriors and nobles. No Spanish lives were lost in this brutal encounter.
• Capture of Atahualpa - The Sapa Inca was seized, shattering Inca command structure. This audacious move gave Pizarro leverage over the empire's leadership.

The imprisonment and execution of Atahualpa

Following his capture, Atahualpa's imprisonment marked a turning point in the conquest. Pizarro exploited the situation to extract immense wealth while consolidating power, ultimately leading to a tragic outcome for the Inca leader.

Events during imprisonment

• Ransom offer - To secure his release, Atahualpa proposed an extraordinary ransom: a room filled with gold and two rooms with silver. This treasure, collected from across the empire, showcased the Incas' vast wealth.
• Spanish collection of treasure - Over several months, Pizarro's men amassed the ransom, melting down priceless artefacts into bullion. This act not only enriched the conquistadors but also destroyed irreplaceable cultural heritage.
• Execution on 26 July 1533 - Despite receiving the ransom, Pizarro ordered Atahualpa's execution on fabricated charges of plotting rebellion and idolatry. This act eliminated a potential rallying point for Inca resistance.

The fall of Cuzco and the establishment of Spanish control

With Atahualpa gone, Pizarro moved to secure the Inca capital and impose Spanish dominance. This phase solidified control over the empire's core territories and resources.

Conquest of the Inca heartland

• March to Cuzco (November 1533) - Pizarro's forces entered the Inca capital, Cuzco, meeting little resistance due to the power vacuum left by Atahualpa's death. This marked the symbolic fall of the empire.
• Installation of Manco Inca - To maintain a semblance of legitimacy, Pizarro installed Manco Inca, a relative of Atahualpa, as a puppet ruler under Spanish oversight. This allowed indirect control over remaining Inca structures.
• Seizure of wealth and authority - The Spanish looted Cuzco's treasures and co-opted the Inca administrative system, using existing networks of tribute and labour to enrich themselves and govern.

Founding of a new capital

Pizarro founded Lima on the coast in 1535 as a new Spanish capital, strategically located for trade and communication with Spain. This shifted the centre of power away from the Andean highlands.

Long-term consequences and Pizarro's assassination

The conquest reshaped the region, but it also sowed seeds of discord among the victors. Pizarro's success was marred by internal conflicts and indigenous resistance, leading to his eventual downfall.

Consequences of the conquest

• Exploitation of divisions - Pizarro's success hinged on exploiting the Inca civil war and gaining support from indigenous groups opposed to Atahualpa. These alliances were crucial to overcoming numerical inferiority.
• Division of treasure - The immense wealth collected was unevenly distributed among the conquistadors, causing resentment and tension within Spanish ranks over shares of gold and silver.
• Impact on the Inca Empire - The Spanish dismantled much of Inca society, imposing colonial rule, forced labour, and Christian conversion, while diseases like smallpox further decimated the population.

Pizarro's assassination and legacy

• Conflicts among Spaniards - Rivalries between Pizarro and other conquistadors, particularly over control of territory and wealth, escalated into open conflict. These disputes fractured Spanish unity in the region.
• Assassination in 1541 - Pizarro was murdered in Lima by followers of a rival faction, ending his personal dominance but not Spanish control over the former Inca lands. His death highlighted the instability of early colonial rule.
• Enduring impact - The conquest opened South America to Spanish colonisation, leading to the exploitation of resources and profound cultural changes, while the destruction of the Inca Empire remains a stark example of colonial ambition and violence.