Key facts and dates

Inter-American diplomacy between 1933 and 1945 marked a significant shift towards cooperation and collective security in the Western Hemisphere, largely driven by the United States' changing foreign policy and global wartime pressures. The following timeline captures the pivotal conferences and agreements that shaped this period.

Timeline of key events

• 1933 – Montevideo Conference establishes the principle of non-intervention.
• 1936 – Buenos Aires Conference adopts the Declaration of Principles of Inter-American Solidarity and Cooperation.
• 1938 – Lima Conference issues the Declaration of Lima for mutual defence.
• 1939 – Panama Conference creates a neutrality zone in the Americas.
• 1940 – Havana Conference results in the Act of Havana concerning European colonies.
• 1942 – Rio Conference recommends breaking ties with Axis powers.

The foundation of inter-American cooperation (1933–1945)

During the period from 1933 to 1945, inter-American diplomacy underwent a transformation as countries in the Western Hemisphere sought to address shared security concerns and economic challenges. This era, marked by the Great Depression and the looming threat of global conflict, saw a series of conferences that aimed to foster unity and reduce external interference in the region. The United States, under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, shifted from earlier interventionist policies to the "Good Neighbor Policy," promoting mutual respect and collaboration.

Context for cooperation

• Economic challenges - The Great Depression hit Latin American economies hard, creating a need for closer economic ties and mutual support to stabilise trade and recovery efforts.
• Global threats - The rise of fascist regimes in Europe and the outbreak of the Second World War raised fears of external aggression, pushing countries to prioritise regional security.
• Shift in U.S. policy - The Good Neighbor Policy, introduced by Roosevelt, signalled a departure from past military interventions in Latin America, focusing instead on diplomacy and partnership.

Key conferences and agreements shaping inter-American relations

Between 1933 and 1942, a series of inter-American conferences laid the groundwork for cooperation through significant agreements and declarations. These meetings addressed issues ranging from non-intervention to collective defence, reflecting a growing sense of regional identity amidst global turmoil.

Montevideo Conference (1933): Principle of non-intervention

• Purpose and context - Held in Uruguay, this conference sought to rebuild trust between the United States and Latin American nations after decades of U.S. interventions.
• Key outcome - The principle of non-intervention was established, asserting that no state had the right to interfere in the internal or external affairs of another. This was a major step towards respecting national sovereignty.
• Significance - It marked a formal commitment by the U.S. to abandon its previous policy of direct intervention, fostering a new era of diplomatic relations.

Buenos Aires Conference (1936): Declaration of Principles of Inter-American Solidarity and Cooperation

• Purpose and context - Convened in Argentina with U.S. President Roosevelt in attendance, this conference aimed to strengthen hemispheric unity in the face of growing European tensions.
• Key outcome - The Declaration of Principles of Inter-American Solidarity and Cooperation was adopted, promoting peaceful dispute resolution and mutual assistance.
• Significance - This agreement reinforced the idea of collective security, encouraging nations to work together to prevent external threats and maintain regional stability.

Lima Conference (1938): Declaration of Lima

• Purpose and context - Held in Peru as war loomed in Europe, this conference focused on protecting the Americas from foreign aggression.
• Key outcome - The Declaration of Lima affirmed the unity of American states and their commitment to mutual defence against external threats.
• Significance - It represented a stronger collective stance, showing a willingness to act together if any American nation faced attack or interference.

Panama Conference (1939): Establishing the neutrality zone

• Purpose and context - Convened shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War, this meeting in Panama addressed the immediate need to safeguard the hemisphere from conflict spillover.
• Key outcome - A neutrality zone was established, extending 300 to 1,000 miles around the Americas (excluding Canada), within which belligerent activities were prohibited.
• Significance - This measure aimed to keep the region insulated from European warfare, highlighting a proactive approach to regional security.

Havana Conference (1940): Act of Havana

• Purpose and context - Held in Cuba amid concerns over European colonies in the Americas falling under Axis control after France's defeat, this conference tackled territorial security.
• Key outcome - The Act of Havana declared that an attack on any American state by a non-American power would be considered an attack on all, and it allowed for temporary administration of European colonies to prevent Axis takeover.
• Significance - This deepened the commitment to collective defence and addressed the strategic vulnerability posed by nearby colonial territories.

Rio Conference (1942): Severance of relations with Axis powers

• Purpose and context - Taking place in Brazil after the Pearl Harbor attack and U.S. entry into the war, this conference sought unified action against the Axis powers.
• Key outcome - A recommendation was made for American states to sever diplomatic and economic relations with Germany, Italy, and Japan.
• Significance - While not all countries complied immediately, it signalled a hemispheric alignment with the Allied cause, reflecting the urgency of wartime solidarity.

The growing influence of the United States in the hemisphere

The United States played a central role in shaping inter-American cooperation during this period, leveraging its economic and military power to drive regional initiatives. This influence was both welcomed and contested, as it often blurred the line between partnership and dominance.

Aspects of U.S. dominance in regional affairs

• Leadership in conferences - The U.S. was a key organiser and participant in each conference, often setting the agenda and pushing for agreements that aligned with its security and economic interests.
• Good Neighbor Policy as a tool - By promoting non-intervention and mutual respect, the U.S. gained trust, but its economic aid and military presence often translated into significant influence over smaller nations.
• Wartime imperatives - As the Second World War progressed, the U.S. prioritised hemispheric defence to secure resources (like oil and minerals) and prevent Axis footholds, leading to increased involvement in Latin American affairs.
• Impact on cooperation - While U.S. leadership facilitated rapid agreements on neutrality and defence, it sometimes raised concerns among Latin American states about losing autonomy to a northern giant.

Tensions between sovereignty and collective security

The push for inter-American cooperation often clashed with the deeply held value of national sovereignty among Latin American countries. Balancing the benefits of unity with the desire for independence created ongoing friction at these conferences.

Challenges in balancing unity and independence

• Sovereignty concerns - Many nations feared that collective agreements, especially those driven by the U.S., could erode their ability to make independent decisions, particularly on issues like foreign policy or economic ties.
• Collective security benefits - Agreements like the Declaration of Lima and the Act of Havana offered protection against external threats, which was appealing in a time of global war, but required ceding some control to regional mechanisms.
• Uneven commitment - While smaller or more vulnerable countries often supported collective measures for safety, larger or more economically independent states were wary of binding commitments that might limit their freedom of action.
• Outcome of tensions - This dynamic resulted in agreements that were often framed as voluntary or recommendatory (e.g., the Rio Conference's call to sever Axis ties), allowing states to retain some sovereignty while still promoting cooperation.

Resistance to closer cooperation among Latin American countries

Not all countries in the Western Hemisphere embraced the move towards tighter inter-American ties. Resistance stemmed from a mix of political, economic, and historical factors, revealing the limits of regional unity.

Reasons for opposition to cooperation

• Historical distrust of the U.S. - Countries like Argentina, with histories of U.S. intervention or economic dominance, were sceptical of American-led initiatives, fearing they masked imperialist ambitions rather than genuine partnership.
• Economic ties to Europe - Argentina, in particular, maintained strong trade links with Britain and Germany, making it reluctant to sever relations with Axis powers as urged at the Rio Conference in 1942; this economic dependency prioritised national interest over regional solidarity.
• Political differences - Some governments, especially those with authoritarian or nationalist leanings, resisted aligning too closely with democratic or U.S.-centric frameworks, valuing ideological independence.
• Impact on unity - Resistance led to delays or partial compliance with conference outcomes, as seen when Argentina initially refused to break ties with the Axis, highlighting the fragility of inter-American consensus during critical wartime years.

Legacy of inter-American diplomacy (1933–1945)

The conferences and agreements of this period left a lasting impact on hemispheric relations, setting precedents for future cooperation while exposing persistent challenges. This era redefined how American states interacted, balancing regional unity with individual state interests.

Long-term significance of the period

• Foundation for future organisations - The principles of non-intervention, mutual defence, and solidarity laid the groundwork for post-war institutions like the Organization of American States (OAS), established in 1948.
• Shift in U.S.-Latin American relations - The Good Neighbor Policy and wartime collaboration improved trust, though underlying tensions over U.S. dominance persisted into the Cold War.
• Strengthening of collective security - The focus on hemispheric defence during global conflict demonstrated the potential for unified action, even if full agreement was often elusive.
• Enduring sovereignty debates - The struggle between cooperation and independence continued to shape regional politics, influencing how Latin American countries approached international alliances in subsequent decades.