15.13 - Soviet Foreign Policy (1919–1939): From Isolation to Non-Aggression - notes

Key facts and dates

Soviet foreign policy between 1919 and 1939 evolved dramatically, shifting from revolutionary zeal to pragmatic alliances in response to changing global dynamics. This timeline captures the pivotal moments that shaped the Soviet Union's international stance during this transformative period.

Timeline of key events

• 1919 – Establishment of the Comintern to promote world revolution and support foreign Communist parties.
• 1922 – Treaty of Rapallo signed with Germany, marking a step towards peaceful coexistence.
• 1924 – Adoption of "socialism in one country" policy under Stalin, focusing on internal development.
• 1934 – Soviet Union joins the League of Nations, advocating collective security against Fascism.
• 1936–1939 – Support for Republican Spain and promotion of popular front strategies against Fascism.
• 1938 – Munich Agreement excludes the Soviet Union, heightening fears of Western appeasement.
• 23 August 1939 – Nazi-Soviet Pact signed, including a secret protocol partitioning Eastern Europe.

Early Soviet foreign policy and the expectation of world revolution

In the immediate aftermath of the Russian Revolution of 1917, Soviet foreign policy was driven by the belief that global revolution was imminent. The Bolshevik leadership anticipated that workers across Europe would rise against capitalist systems, creating a worldwide socialist order.

Revolutionary ambitions and initial isolation

• Expectation of world revolution - The Soviets believed that their revolution would inspire similar uprisings in industrialised nations, particularly in Europe, leading to a global overthrow of capitalism.
• Role of the Comintern - Established in 1919, the Communist International (Comintern) was an organisation tasked with coordinating and supporting Communist parties abroad, spreading revolutionary ideology and undermining capitalist governments.
• Hostility to capitalist states - This ideological stance created deep antagonism with Western powers, positioning the Soviet Union as an isolated pariah state in the international community during the early post-revolutionary years.
• Failure of revolutions abroad - Hopes for global revolution were dashed when attempted uprisings in Germany (1919) and Hungary (1919) failed, revealing that conditions for revolution were not as ripe as anticipated.

Shift to "socialism in one country" and peaceful coexistence in the 1920s

Following the failure of international revolutions, Soviet leadership under Joseph Stalin pivoted to a more inward-looking and pragmatic approach. This marked a significant shift in foreign policy during the 1920s, balancing ideological goals with practical needs for stability.

Key developments in Soviet policy

• Adoption of "socialism in one country" (1924) - Stalin prioritised building a strong socialist state within the Soviet Union rather than relying on immediate global revolution. This policy shift focused on internal industrialisation and consolidation of power.
• Policy of peaceful coexistence - To secure economic and diplomatic breathing space, the Soviet Union sought normalised relations with capitalist states, even while maintaining revolutionary rhetoric.
• Treaty of Rapallo (1922) - A landmark agreement with Germany that established diplomatic and economic ties, allowing both nations to break out of post-World War I isolation and counterbalance Western hostility.
• Trade agreements with Western powers - The Soviet Union pursued economic partnerships with countries like Britain and France to access technology and goods, demonstrating a willingness to engage with capitalist economies despite ideological differences.
• Continued role of the Comintern - While pursuing diplomacy, the Soviet Union did not abandon its revolutionary aims, continuing to support foreign Communist movements through the Comintern, creating a dual approach of cooperation and subversion.

Move towards collective security and anti-Fascist strategies in the 1930s

As the threat of Fascism grew in Europe during the 1930s, Soviet foreign policy shifted again, focusing on collective security to counter the rise of aggressive regimes like Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. This period saw increased engagement with international organisations and alliances.

Strategies to combat Fascism

• Entry into the League of Nations (1934) - The Soviet Union joined this international body, marking a significant departure from earlier isolation. Foreign Minister Maxim Litvinov advocated for collective security, urging nations to unite against Fascist aggression.
• Popular front strategy - The Soviet Union encouraged cooperation between Communist parties, democratic socialists, and liberals in Western countries to form broad anti-Fascist coalitions, prioritising unity over strict ideological purity.
• Support for Republican Spain (1936–1939) - During the Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union provided military aid and advisors to the Republican forces fighting against Franco's Fascist-backed Nationalists, viewing the conflict as a critical front against Fascism.

Failure of alliance negotiations with the West and growing mistrust

Despite efforts to build anti-Fascist alliances, the Soviet Union grew increasingly suspicious of Western intentions during the late 1930s. This mistrust culminated in failed negotiations for a united front against Nazi Germany, pushing Soviet policy in a new direction.

Reasons for deteriorating relations with the West

• Suspicion of Western appeasement - The Munich Agreement of 1938, which allowed Nazi Germany to annex parts of Czechoslovakia without Soviet involvement, reinforced fears that Britain and France were encouraging German expansion eastward towards the Soviet Union.
• Failure of Anglo-French-Soviet negotiations (Spring-Summer 1939) - Efforts to form a military alliance against Germany collapsed due to mutual distrust. Key obstacles included Poland's refusal to allow Soviet troops passage through its territory, fearing Soviet domination, and reluctance from Britain and France to fully commit to a binding alliance, partly due to ideological differences and underestimation of the Nazi threat.
• Growing isolation - These failures left the Soviet Union feeling vulnerable and betrayed, convinced that the West was unwilling to cooperate effectively against the growing Fascist menace.

The Nazi-Soviet Pact and its implications

In a dramatic and unexpected turn, the Soviet Union signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact on 23 August 1939, aligning with its ideological enemy, Nazi Germany. This non-aggression agreement reshaped the geopolitical landscape on the eve of World War II.

Details and consequences of the pact

• Purpose of the pact - For Stalin, the agreement was a pragmatic move to buy time, delaying a potential conflict with Germany while the Soviet Union strengthened its military and industrial capabilities.
• Secret protocol - The pact included a hidden clause partitioning Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. This allowed for the division of Poland between Germany and the Soviet Union, and Soviet annexation of the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and Bessarabia (part of modern-day Moldova and Ukraine).
• Soviet actions post-pact - Following the agreement, the Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland in September 1939, engaged in the Winter War with Finland (1939–1940), and annexed the Baltic States in 1940, expanding its territorial buffer zone.

Historical debate over Stalin's motives

• Ideological betrayal - Some historians argue this represented an abandonment of anti-Fascist principles for short-term gain.
• Pragmatic survival - Others view it as prioritising Soviet security over ideology in the face of Western inaction.
• Preparation for eventual conflict - A third perspective suggests Stalin used the pact as a strategic delay to prepare for an inevitable war with Germany.

Impact of the pact

• Impact on Western Communists - The pact shocked Communist supporters in the West, who struggled to reconcile Soviet alignment with Nazi Germany, damaging the credibility of Communist movements globally.
• Strategic implications - The agreement temporarily averted a two-front war for Germany, enabling the invasion of Poland and the start of World War II, while giving the Soviet Union breathing space to fortify its defences.

This pivotal shift in Soviet foreign policy from 1919 to 1939 illustrates a journey from revolutionary idealism to pragmatic realpolitik, shaped by internal priorities and external threats.