11.7 - Garibaldi & the Expedition of the Thousand
Key facts and dates
Giuseppe Garibaldi played a pivotal role in the unification of Italy through his daring military campaigns, most notably the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860. This timeline captures the critical events of his campaign and the broader context of Italian unification during this transformative year.
Timeline of key events
- April 1860 – Sicilian uprising against Bourbon rule sparks appeals for support from northern Italy.
- May 1860 – Garibaldi departs from Genoa with around 1,000 volunteers, known as the Red Shirts.
- 15 May 1860 – Victory at the Battle of Calatafimi boosts morale and support for Garibaldi's campaign in Sicily.
- 27 May 1860 – Garibaldi captures Palermo, a major turning point in the conquest of Sicily.
- August–September 1860 – Garibaldi crosses to the mainland, conquers Naples, and collapses Bourbon rule.
- 26 October 1860 – Garibaldi meets Victor Emmanuel II at Teano, handing over his conquests.
- Late 1860 – Plebiscites confirm the annexation of southern territories to Piedmont.
Giuseppe Garibaldi's background and reputation
Giuseppe Garibaldi emerged as a central figure in the Italian unification movement, known as the Risorgimento, due to his military prowess and revolutionary zeal. His early life and experiences shaped him into a charismatic leader who inspired widespread loyalty.
Early life and revolutionary activities
- Mazzinian conspiracies - In his youth, Garibaldi joined conspiracies inspired by Giuseppe Mazzini, a key advocate for Italian unification and republicanism, fostering his commitment to the cause.
- Exile in South America - After a failed uprising in 1834, he fled to South America, where he fought in civil wars in Brazil and Uruguay, gaining valuable military experience and a reputation as a guerrilla fighter.
- 1848–1849 revolutions - Returning to Italy, Garibaldi played a significant role in the revolutions of 1848–1849, notably defending the short-lived Roman Republic against French forces, which cemented his status as a heroic revolutionary.
- Romantic revolutionary image - His daring exploits, personal bravery, and commitment to freedom earned him a romanticised reputation among Italians and international supporters as a symbol of resistance against oppression.
The Sicilian context and the 1860 uprising
By 1860, Sicily was a powder keg of discontent under the rule of the Bourbon monarchy, based in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This unrest provided a crucial opportunity for Garibaldi to intervene and advance the unification agenda.
Conditions leading to the uprising
- Bourbon oppression - The Bourbon regime was widely resented for its harsh governance, economic neglect, and suppression of dissent, particularly in Sicily, which felt exploited and marginalised.
- April 1860 uprising - A revolt erupted in Palermo and surrounding areas, driven by local peasants and liberals who sought reform and autonomy, creating a power vacuum that begged for external support.
- Appeals for northern aid - Sicilian rebels sent desperate calls for assistance to northern Italian states, particularly Piedmont-Sardinia, hoping for military and political backing to sustain their fight against Bourbon forces.
- Complex political situation - The uprising occurred amidst broader tensions in Italy, with competing visions of unification (monarchical versus republican) and foreign powers like France and Austria looming as potential obstacles.
The Expedition of the Thousand and the conquest of Sicily
Garibaldi seized the moment to launch one of the most audacious campaigns in the history of Italian unification. With a small but determined force, he achieved remarkable successes that shifted the balance of power in southern Italy.
Key stages of the expedition
- Recruitment and departure - In May 1860, Garibaldi gathered around 1,000 volunteers, known as i Mille or the Red Shirts, a mix of idealists and seasoned fighters, departing from Genoa with limited resources but immense determination.
- Landing at Marsala - On 11 May, they landed at Marsala on Sicily's west coast, exploiting the element of surprise and local support to establish a foothold despite Bourbon naval presence.
- Victory at Calatafimi - On 15 May, Garibaldi's forces defeated a larger Bourbon army at the Battle of Calatafimi, a morale-boosting triumph that encouraged thousands of Sicilians to join his cause.
- Capture of Palermo - By 27 May, after intense street fighting, Garibaldi took Palermo, the island's capital, using guerrilla tactics and local uprisings to overpower Bourbon defenses, marking a turning point in the campaign.
- Conquest of Sicily - Over the following weeks, his forces consolidated control over the island, defeating remaining Bourbon troops and gaining widespread popular support through promises of land reform and liberation.
Cavour's ambiguous role and political calculations
Count Camillo di Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, played a complex and often contradictory role in Garibaldi's campaign. While publicly distancing himself, he recognised the strategic importance of the expedition for unification under Piedmontese leadership.
Cavour's strategic manoeuvring
- Public disavowal - Officially, Cavour condemned the expedition to avoid provoking foreign powers like France, which protected the Papal States, or Austria, which opposed Italian unification.
- Secret facilitation - Behind the scenes, he provided indirect support by allowing volunteers to gather and ensuring supplies reached Garibaldi, understanding that success could expand Piedmont's influence.
- Fear of consequences - Cavour worried about French intervention if Garibaldi's actions threatened Rome, as well as the risk of a republican revolution if Garibaldi's ideals gained too much traction over monarchical unification.
- Recognition of opportunity - Despite his reservations, Cavour saw the expedition as a chance to weaken the Bourbons and integrate southern Italy into a unified state under King Victor Emmanuel II, aligning with his vision of unification "from above".
Garibaldi's advance to Naples and the crisis over Rome
Following his success in Sicily, Garibaldi pressed his advantage by crossing to the mainland, achieving further victories but also creating a political crisis over his intentions. This phase highlighted both his military skill and the tensions within the unification movement.
Conquest and looming conflict
- Crossing to the mainland - In August 1860, Garibaldi crossed the Strait of Messina with his growing army, now swelled by local recruits, and rapidly advanced towards Naples.
- Conquest of Naples - On 7 September, he entered Naples unopposed, welcomed as a liberator by the populace, effectively collapsing the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and showcasing his immense popular appeal.
- Intention to march on Rome - Garibaldi planned to continue northwards to capture Rome, the symbolic heart of Italy, still under papal control and protected by French troops, risking international conflict.
- Cavour's response - Alarmed by the potential for French intervention and a republican uprising, Cavour dispatched Piedmontese troops through the Papal States, defeating papal forces at the Battle of Castelfidardo in September 1860 to secure control and block Garibaldi's path.
The meeting at Teano and the handover to Victor Emmanuel II
The culmination of Garibaldi's campaign came with a historic and symbolic gesture that prioritised national unity over personal ambition. This moment marked the integration of southern conquests into the emerging Italian state.
The pivotal encounter
- Meeting at Teano - On 26 October 1860, Garibaldi met King Victor Emmanuel II near Teano in southern Italy, a carefully orchestrated encounter symbolising the union of revolutionary and monarchical forces.
- Handover of conquests - In a profound act of loyalty to the unification cause, Garibaldi formally handed over control of Sicily and Naples to the king, acknowledging Piedmont's leadership despite his own republican leanings.
- Plebiscites for annexation - Shortly after, plebiscites (public votes) in the southern regions overwhelmingly confirmed their annexation to Piedmont-Sardinia, legitimising the territorial expansion and paving the way for the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.
Garibaldi's character, ideals, and legacy in Italian unification
Garibaldi's personality and principles were instrumental in his achievements and in shaping his enduring image in Italian history. His actions during and after the expedition reflect a man driven by both idealism and pragmatism.
Defining traits and lasting impact
- Republican ideals - Garibaldi was a committed republican, influenced by Mazzini, believing in a unified Italy free from monarchical rule, yet he repeatedly subordinated these beliefs for the greater goal of national unity.
- Personal charisma - His magnetic personality, courage in battle, and genuine concern for the common people made him a folk hero, inspiring loyalty among volunteers and southern peasants alike.
- Willingness to compromise - His decision to yield to Victor Emmanuel II at Teano demonstrated a pragmatic willingness to prioritise unity over ideology, ensuring the southern territories joined the northern framework.
- Retirement to Caprera - After Teano, Garibaldi retired to his modest home on the island of Caprera, stepping back from politics though remaining a symbolic figure, later attempting further campaigns for Rome.
- Debates on unification - Historians debate whether unification was driven "from below" by Garibaldi's popular movements or "from above" by Cavour's diplomatic and political strategies, with both elements undeniably contributing.
- Legend in nationalist mythology - Garibaldi became a mythic figure in Italian nationalism, celebrated as the "Hero of Two Worlds" for his South American and Italian exploits, embodying the spirit of the Risorgimento and inspiring future generations with tales of bravery and sacrifice.