9.9 - Establishment of the Third Republic (1871–1890)
Key facts and dates
The establishment of the Third Republic in France was a tumultuous process following the Franco-Prussian War, marked by defeat, social upheaval, and political divisions. The following timeline captures the critical events and milestones in the creation and consolidation of this new republican government.
Timeline of key events
- 1871 (March-May) – Paris Commune proclaimed by radicals, suppressed during "Bloody Week" (21-28 May) with around 20,000 killed.
- 1871-1873 – German occupation of France until war indemnity fully paid.
- 1873 – Adolphe Thiers secures rapid indemnity payment, enabling German evacuation; Marshal MacMahon becomes president.
- 1875 – Constitutional laws establish the Third Republic with a one-vote majority via the Wallon Amendment.
- 1877 – Seize Mai crisis sees MacMahon dissolve the Chamber; republicans win subsequent elections.
- 1879 – MacMahon resigns; republicans gain control of the Senate.
- 1881-1882 – Jules Ferry's education laws secularise primary education.
- 1890 – Third Republic achieves relative stability despite ongoing opposition.
The challenging context after France's defeat in 1871
The establishment of the Third Republic came in the wake of France's devastating loss in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). This defeat created a backdrop of national humiliation and political instability, setting the stage for a difficult transition to a new form of government.
Key factors contributing to instability
- Military defeat and territorial loss - France's surrender to Prussia resulted in the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, a significant blow to national pride and a source of lingering resentment.
- German occupation - German troops occupied parts of France until a hefty war indemnity was paid, placing economic strain on the nation and intensifying public frustration.
- Monarchist majority in the National Assembly - Despite the fall of the Second Empire under Napoleon III, the newly elected National Assembly was dominated by monarchists, who were divided between Legitimists (supporting the Bourbon claimant) and Orléanists (supporting the Comte de Paris), creating a fractured political landscape.
- Social and economic hardship - The war left France in economic disarray, with widespread poverty and discontent among the working classes, fuelling radical demands for change.
The Paris Commune and its violent suppression
In the midst of this turmoil, the Paris Commune emerged as a radical challenge to the conservative government. This short-lived revolutionary movement highlighted deep class divisions and left a lasting trauma on French society.
Rise and fall of the Paris Commune
- Proclamation in March 1871 - Radical republicans and socialists in Paris declared the Commune, seeking social reforms, workers' rights, and municipal autonomy from the conservative National Assembly based in Versailles.
- Demands and governance - The Commune aimed to address inequalities through measures like wage reforms and separation of church and state, appealing to the working class but alarming the conservative elite.
- Suppression during "Bloody Week" (21-28 May 1871) - The Assembly, fearing the spread of radicalism, launched a brutal military campaign to crush the Commune. Approximately 20,000 Communards were killed, and thousands more were arrested or exiled.
- Long-term impact - The violent suppression deepened class divisions, creating a legacy of bitterness between the working classes and the ruling elite, and casting a shadow over the early years of the Republic.
Emergence of the Third Republic by default
With monarchists unable to agree on a restoration and radical movements suppressed, the Third Republic emerged almost by accident. It was shaped by pragmatic leadership and the urgent need to stabilise the nation.
Factors leading to the Republic's formation
- Monarchist divisions - The split between Legitimists and Orléanists prevented a unified effort to restore the monarchy, leaving a political vacuum that republicans gradually filled.
- Adolphe Thiers's leadership (1871-1873) - As the first leader of the provisional government, Thiers focused on national recovery, prioritising the rapid payment of the war indemnity to secure the evacuation of German troops by 1873.
- Marshal MacMahon as president (1873-1879) - A monarchist at heart, MacMahon was elected president, but his tenure saw the continued inability to restore a monarchy, allowing republican ideas to gain ground.
The constitutional laws of 1875 and their significance
The formal structure of the Third Republic was established through a series of constitutional laws in 1875. These laws created a framework for governance that balanced democratic elements with safeguards against radicalism.
Key features of the 1875 constitutional laws
- Chamber of Deputies - Elected by universal male suffrage, this lower house held significant legislative power, reflecting democratic principles.
- Senate - Indirectly elected by local officials, the upper house was designed as a conservative counterbalance to prevent radical shifts in policy.
- Weak presidency - The president's role was limited, with real power resting in the hands of ministers responsible to the Chamber of Deputies, ensuring parliamentary dominance.
- Wallon Amendment - A crucial addition to the constitution, this amendment officially established France as a republic, passing by just a one-vote majority, symbolising the fragile yet decisive shift away from monarchy.
Consolidation of republicanism and key political crises
Throughout the late 1870s, republicans worked to secure their hold on power, overcoming significant challenges and crises. This period saw the gradual weakening of monarchist influence and the strengthening of parliamentary authority.
Milestones in republican consolidation
- Seize Mai crisis (1877) - President MacMahon, frustrated by republican gains, dissolved the Chamber of Deputies in an attempt to reassert control. However, republicans won the subsequent elections, establishing the principle of parliamentary sovereignty over the presidency.
- MacMahon's resignation (1879) - Following the electoral defeat, MacMahon resigned, marking a symbolic victory for republicanism as a more aligned president took office.
- Republican control of the Senate (1879) - By winning seats in the Senate, republicans secured dominance in both houses of parliament, further entrenching their power.
- Anticlerical legislation - Under leaders like Jules Ferry, laws were passed to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church, notably through education reforms (1881-1882) that secularised primary schooling, and the expulsion of unauthorised religious orders, aligning the state with republican values.
Stability and opposition by 1890
By 1890, the Third Republic had achieved a degree of stability, though it continued to face opposition from various quarters. This period reflected both the successes of republican governance and the persistent challenges to its legitimacy.
Achievements and ongoing challenges
- Relative stability - Through constitutional reforms, electoral victories, and social legislation, the Republic had established itself as a functioning parliamentary democracy, capable of managing national affairs.
- Monarchist opposition - Despite their declining influence, monarchist factions (both Legitimist and Orléanist) remained active, hoping for a restoration of the monarchy.
- Bonapartist opposition - Supporters of a return to an imperial system under the Bonaparte family also posed a challenge, appealing to those nostalgic for Napoleon III's rule.
- Social divisions - The legacy of the Paris Commune and economic disparities continued to fuel tensions between classes, with some radical groups advocating for more extreme reforms.
- Enduring framework - Despite these challenges, the Third Republic's structures proved resilient, laying the groundwork for France's political system well into the 20th century.