Key facts and dates

Hitler's foreign policy between 1933 and 1939 was a critical factor in the lead-up to the Second World War, marked by aggressive expansionism and the dismantling of post-First World War treaties. The timeline below captures the pivotal events and actions that defined this period of German territorial and political growth.

Timeline of key events:

• 1933 – Germany withdraws from the League of Nations and the Disarmament Conference.
• 1934 – Non-aggression pact signed with Poland, easing eastern border tensions.
• 1935 – Reintroduction of conscription and public announcement of rearmament in defiance of Versailles.
• March 1936 – Remilitarisation of the Rhineland, violating the Treaty of Versailles.
• 1936-1939 – Intervention in the Spanish Civil War, supporting Franco's Nationalists.
• 1936 – Formation of the Rome-Berlin Axis with Italy and the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan.
• March 1938 – Anschluss with Austria, uniting the two nations under German control.
• September 1938 – Munich Agreement cedes Sudetenland to Germany through appeasement.
• March 1939 – Occupation of Bohemia-Moravia, ending Czechoslovakia as a state.
• August 1939 – Nazi-Soviet Pact secures non-aggression with the USSR, paving the way for war.

Hitler's foreign policy aims and ideological foundations

Hitler's foreign policy was driven by a set of ambitious and aggressive goals that sought to reshape Europe under German dominance. These aims were deeply rooted in his ideological beliefs, articulated in works like Mein Kampf (1925) and the unpublished Zweites Buch (Second Book, 1928), which provided a framework for his vision of German expansion.

Core objectives of Hitler's foreign policy:

• Overturning the Treaty of Versailles - Hitler aimed to reverse the punitive terms imposed on Germany after the First World War, which included territorial losses, military restrictions, and reparations, viewing them as a national humiliation.
• Creating a Greater Germany (Grossdeutschland) - This involved uniting all German-speaking peoples into a single state, incorporating territories like Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia where ethnic Germans lived.
• Acquiring Lebensraum (living space) - Hitler sought to expand eastward, particularly into Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, to provide land and resources for the growing German population, which he believed was essential for national strength.
• Achieving European domination - Ultimately, Hitler envisioned Germany as the leading power in Europe, dominating politically, militarily, and economically over other nations, rooted in his belief in Aryan supremacy.

These goals were not just political ambitions but were tied to Nazi ideology, which promoted racial hierarchies and the need for territorial conquest to secure Germany's future. This ideological foundation shaped both the direction and the aggressive nature of his foreign policy.

Key stages of German expansionism (1933-1939)

Hitler's foreign policy unfolded in distinct stages, each building on the previous to expand German influence and territory. This incremental approach tested the limits of international tolerance and exploited the weaknesses of other powers.

Early defiance and rearmament (1933-1935)

• Withdrawal from international agreements (1933) - Germany left the League of Nations and the Disarmament Conference, rejecting international cooperation and signalling an independent, aggressive stance.
• Non-aggression pact with Poland (1934) - This temporary agreement reduced tensions on Germany's eastern border, allowing Hitler to focus on internal rearmament and western challenges.
• Reintroduction of conscription (1935) - Defying the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler publicly announced rearmament and compulsory military service, rebuilding Germany's military strength.

Territorial and political assertions (1936-1937)

• Remilitarisation of the Rhineland (March 1936) - German troops reoccupied this demilitarised zone along the French border, a clear violation of Versailles, met with little resistance from France or Britain.
• Intervention in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) - Germany supported Franco's Nationalists with military aid, testing new weapons and tactics while aligning against communist influences in Europe.
• Formation of alliances (1936-1937) - The Rome-Berlin Axis with Italy formalised a partnership based on shared fascist ideologies, while the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan (later joined by Italy in 1937) targeted communism, creating a bloc against the Soviet Union.

Aggressive territorial expansion (1938-1939)

• Anschluss with Austria (March 1938) - Hitler pressured Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg, using threats and support from local Nazis to force a union, annexing Austria without opposition as German troops marched in unopposed.
• Sudetenland Crisis and Munich Agreement (September 1938) - Hitler demanded the Sudetenland, a German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia, exploiting ethnic tensions. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement led to the Munich Agreement, ceding the territory to Germany to avoid war.
• Destruction of Czechoslovakia (March 1939) - Germany occupied Bohemia and Moravia, turning them into a protectorate, while Slovakia became a puppet state. This move ended appeasement, as it showed Hitler's aims went beyond uniting Germans.
• Final alliances before war (May-August 1939) - The Pact of Steel with Italy solidified military cooperation, while the Nazi-Soviet Pact, a non-aggression agreement with the USSR in August, stunned the world by securing Germany's eastern flank and dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence.

Methods and strategies employed by Hitler in foreign affairs

Hitler's success in achieving his foreign policy aims relied on a combination of bold tactics and calculated risks. These methods exploited the international situation and the hesitancy of other powers to confront Germany directly.

Key tactics in Hitler's foreign policy:

• Fait accompli - Hitler often presented actions as already completed, such as the remilitarisation of the Rhineland, leaving opponents with little choice but to accept the new reality rather than risk conflict.
• Brinkmanship - He pushed situations to the edge of war, as seen in the Sudetenland Crisis, gambling that other nations would back down to avoid large-scale conflict, which often proved correct until 1939.
• Exploitation of Western weaknesses - Hitler took advantage of Britain and France's reluctance to engage in another war after 1918, as well as their policy of appeasement, which sought to maintain peace by conceding to some of his demands.
• Incremental aggression - By pursuing small, successive steps rather than immediate large-scale conquests, such as moving from Rhineland remilitarisation to Anschluss, Hitler avoided provoking a unified or immediate military response.

These strategies allowed Hitler to build momentum, gaining territory and confidence with each unchallenged success, while carefully assessing the reactions of other powers.

Historiographical debate on Hitler's approach to foreign policy

Historians have long debated whether Hitler's foreign policy followed a premeditated plan or was a series of opportunistic moves. This discussion sheds light on how his actions should be interpreted in the context of the time.

Two perspectives on Hitler's strategy:

• Intentionalist view: A blueprint for action - Some historians argue that Hitler followed a clear plan laid out in Mein Kampf and Zweites Buch, where his goals of Lebensraum and European dominance were explicit. This view sees his actions as part of a deliberate, long-term strategy to achieve these ideological aims through systematic expansion.
• Functionalist view: Opportunistic improvisation - Others suggest that Hitler was more of an opportunist, reacting to circumstances and exploiting weaknesses as they appeared. This perspective highlights how events like the lack of resistance to the Rhineland remilitarisation or Chamberlain's appeasement shaped his decisions, rather than a rigid plan.

This debate illustrates the complexity of Hitler's foreign policy, suggesting it may have been a blend of ideological intent and pragmatic adaptation to unfolding events.

Reasons for Hitler's successes until the outbreak of war in 1939

Hitler's foreign policy achievements up to 1939 were remarkable, transforming Germany from a weakened post-Versailles state into a dominant European power. Several factors contributed to this trajectory before international resistance hardened.

Factors behind Hitler's early triumphs:

• Weakness of the League of Nations - The League lacked the authority or military power to enforce sanctions or oppose German actions, as seen in the unchallenged withdrawal in 1933 and subsequent violations of Versailles.
• Policy of appeasement - Britain and France, fearing another devastating war, pursued appeasement, conceding to demands like the Sudetenland in hopes of satisfying Hitler, which instead emboldened further aggression.
• Divisions among opponents - Western powers were not unified, with Britain and France often at odds over how to respond, while the Soviet Union was initially isolated, allowing Hitler to act without a coordinated counterforce.
• Germany's growing military strength - Rearmament and conscription rebuilt Germany's military capacity, making it a credible threat that deterred immediate opposition, as seen in the unopposed Anschluss.
• Strategic alliances - Pacts like the Rome-Berlin Axis and the Nazi-Soviet Pact secured allies or neutralised potential enemies, reducing the risk of a multi-front conflict and enabling focused expansion.

These elements combined to create a window of opportunity for Hitler, allowing him to achieve significant territorial and political gains until the invasion of Poland in September 1939 finally triggered a broader war.