1.8 - International Context & the Washington System
Key facts and dates
The international order in East Asia after World War I was shaped by the Washington Conference (1921-1922), which aimed to stabilise the region through treaties and naval agreements. However, these arrangements led to significant Japanese dissatisfaction, influencing their foreign policy and security outlook in the following years.
Timeline of key events
- 1921-1922 – Washington Conference establishes naval ratios and key treaties.
- 1922 – Nine-Power Treaty guarantees Chinese sovereignty and territorial integrity.
- 1922 – Four-Power Treaty replaces the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
- 1922 – Naval ratios set Japan at '3' compared to US and British '5', causing resentment.
- 1924 – US Immigration Act restricts Japanese immigration, fuelling racial grievances.
The post-World War I international order in East Asia
After the devastation of World War I, the international community sought to create a stable order in East Asia to prevent future conflicts and manage power dynamics in the region. This period was marked by a series of diplomatic efforts to address territorial ambitions, naval competition, and the balance of power among major nations, particularly involving the United States, Britain, Japan, and China. The framework established during this time aimed to promote peace but also sowed seeds of discontent, especially in Japan.
Objectives of the post-war order
- Preventing conflict - The primary goal was to avoid another large-scale war by addressing naval arms races and territorial disputes in East Asia.
- Balancing power - Efforts were made to create a balance between emerging powers like Japan and established powers like the United States and Britain.
- Protecting sovereignty - Special attention was given to safeguarding weaker nations, such as China, from aggressive expansion by stronger states.
Key outcomes of the Washington Conference (1921-1922)
Held between 1921 and 1922, the Washington Conference was a pivotal diplomatic gathering aimed at stabilising East Asia and the Pacific region through arms limitation and treaty agreements. It resulted in several key treaties that defined international relations in the area for the next decade.
Major agreements and treaties
- Naval Limitation Treaty - This established a naval tonnage ratio for capital ships among the major powers, setting the United States and Britain at a '5' ratio, Japan at '3', and France and Italy at '1.67'. This aimed to prevent a naval arms race but limited Japan's naval strength relative to Western powers.
- Nine-Power Treaty (1922) - Signed by nine nations including the United States, Britain, Japan, and China, this treaty guaranteed China's sovereignty and territorial integrity, promoting an "open door" policy for equal trade access while discouraging territorial expansion in China.
- Four-Power Treaty (1922) - This agreement between the United States, Britain, Japan, and France replaced the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, committing the signatories to respect each other's Pacific territories and consult on disputes, aiming for regional stability without formal alliances.
Japanese resentment and perceptions of unfair treatment
The outcomes of the Washington Conference, particularly the naval ratios, were met with significant dissatisfaction in Japan. This resentment stemmed from a belief that Western powers were deliberately curtailing Japan's status as an emerging great power, leading to long-term implications for Japanese foreign policy.
Sources of Japanese discontent
- Naval ratio disparity - Japan's designation as a '3' power compared to the US and British '5' was seen as a direct insult, implying inferiority despite Japan's growing military and economic strength.
- Perception of exclusion - Many in Japan felt that Western powers were denying them their rightful place among global leaders, viewing the naval limitations as a means to suppress Japanese ambitions in the region.
- Impact on national pride - This perceived discrimination fuelled nationalist sentiments, as the Japanese public and military leaders believed their victories in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) and contributions to World War I warranted equal treatment.
Impact of the termination of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance
The replacement of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance with the Four-Power Treaty in 1922 had profound effects on Japanese security thinking. This shift altered Japan's diplomatic and strategic outlook, pushing it away from cooperation with Western powers.
Consequences of the alliance's end
- Loss of a key partnership - The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, established in 1902, had provided Japan with a sense of security and legitimacy as a partner of Britain, a leading global power. Its termination left Japan feeling isolated.
- Shift in security policy - Without the alliance, Japan began to reassess its reliance on Western cooperation, leading to a more independent and assertive stance in regional affairs.
- Increased mistrust - The move was interpreted as a sign that Western powers, particularly Britain, no longer valued Japan's strategic importance, fostering suspicion and encouraging Japan to pursue unilateral policies to safeguard its interests.
Scepticism towards the League of Nations and collective security
The League of Nations, established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and collective security, was increasingly viewed with doubt in Japan. This scepticism reflected broader frustrations with the post-war international system.
Reasons for Japanese disillusionment
- Perceived ineffectiveness - Many Japanese leaders doubted the League's ability to enforce collective security, especially in addressing regional issues in East Asia where Western interests often dominated.
- Bias towards Western powers - There was a growing belief that the League served the agendas of the United States and European nations, marginalising Japan's concerns and ambitions.
- Influence on foreign policy - This distrust contributed to Japan's gradual withdrawal from international cooperative frameworks, as it sought to assert its influence through more direct and independent means in the 1930s.
Effects of Western immigration restrictions on Japanese grievances
Western policies on immigration, particularly in the United States, added another layer of grievance for Japan during the 1920s. These restrictions were seen as discriminatory and further strained relations with Western nations.
Impact of immigration policies
- US Immigration Act of 1924 - This act effectively banned Japanese immigration to the United States by establishing quotas that excluded Asians, building on earlier restrictions like the 1907 Gentlemen's Agreement. It was perceived as a clear act of racial discrimination.
- Fuel for nationalist sentiment - The policy intensified feelings of humiliation and rejection in Japan, as it was seen as evidence of Western prejudice against Japanese people, reinforcing narratives of racial inequality.
- Broader diplomatic tensions - Combined with naval limitations and other slights, these immigration restrictions deepened Japanese resentment towards the West, influencing public opinion and government policy to adopt a more confrontational stance in international affairs.