Key facts and dates

The Japanese military campaigns in China from 1937 to 1938 marked a significant escalation in the Second Sino-Japanese War, following years of tension. These campaigns involved brutal urban battles, devastating rural policies, and strategic advances that aimed to crush Chinese resistance and secure key regions.

Timeline of key events:

• 7 July 1937 – Marco Polo Bridge Incident sparks full-scale war between Japan and China.
• August-November 1937 – Battle of Shanghai results in heavy casualties on both sides.
• December 1937 – Japanese forces capture Nanjing, the Nationalist capital.
• 1938 – Strategic terror bombing of Chinese cities, including Guangzhou, intensifies.
• June 1938 – Chinese breach Yellow River dikes to delay Japanese advances.
• October 1938 – Japanese capture Wuhan and Guangzhou, gaining control of eastern China's key cities.

The outbreak of conflict: Marco Polo Bridge Incident

The Second Sino-Japanese War escalated dramatically in 1937, transforming from localised tensions into a full-scale conflict. This shift began with a seemingly minor clash that rapidly spiralled out of control, setting the stage for Japan's aggressive military campaigns in China.

Trigger of the war:

• Marco Polo Bridge Incident (7 July 1937) - A skirmish between Japanese and Chinese troops near the Marco Polo Bridge, close to Beijing, became the pretext for war. Although initially a small-scale encounter, neither side backed down, leading to a rapid escalation.
• Context of tension - This incident followed years of friction, including Japan's occupation of Manchuria in 1931. It provided Japan with an opportunity to expand its control over China, exploiting the country's internal divisions between the Nationalists and Communists.
• Immediate consequences - The clash led to Japan launching a full-scale invasion, aiming to dominate key regions and resources, while China, under Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government, mobilised to resist.

Major Japanese offensives: Battle of Shanghai and capture of Nanjing

Following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Japan initiated major military operations to seize control of China's eastern territories. These campaigns were marked by intense urban warfare and significant loss of life, reflecting the ferocity of the conflict.

The Battle of Shanghai (August-November 1937)

• Urban conflict - This three-month battle was one of the bloodiest of the early war, fought in and around Shanghai, China's largest city and a key economic hub. It involved house-to-house fighting and relentless artillery bombardments.
• Massive casualties - Both sides suffered enormous losses, with estimates of over 200,000 Chinese casualties (military and civilian) and around 70,000 Japanese. The battle demonstrated Japan's military superiority but also highlighted China's determination to resist.
• Strategic impact - Japan's victory in Shanghai opened the path for further advances inland, dealing a severe blow to Chinese morale and industrial capacity.

Advance along the Yangtze River and capture of Nanjing

• Push towards the capital - After Shanghai, Japanese forces moved along the Yangtze River, a vital waterway, targeting Nanjing, the capital of the Nationalist government. This advance aimed to decapitate Chinese political leadership.
• Fall of Nanjing (December 1937) - The city fell after a brutal campaign, leading to widespread atrocities against civilians and soldiers alike. The event, often referred to as the Nanjing Massacre, became a symbol of Japanese wartime brutality.
• Political consequences - The loss of Nanjing forced the Nationalist government to relocate to Chongqing, further weakening its administrative control and exposing internal vulnerabilities.

Strategic bombing and rural warfare tactics

Japan employed a dual strategy of urban bombing and rural devastation to break Chinese resistance. These tactics aimed to destroy both the will and the means to fight, targeting civilian populations and infrastructure with ruthless efficiency.

Terror bombing of Chinese cities

• Campaign of destruction - Throughout 1938, Japan conducted strategic bombing raids on cities like Guangzhou, aiming to terrorise civilians and disrupt economic activity. These attacks often targeted non-military areas to maximise fear.
• Impact on morale - The bombings caused significant civilian casualties and displacement, undermining public support for continued resistance and straining China's limited resources to cope with refugees and destruction.
• Technological advantage - Japan's air superiority allowed sustained campaigns with little effective Chinese counteraction, showcasing the disparity in military capabilities.

Rural warfare tactics

• Policy of devastation - In rural areas, Japan employed brutal tactics to eliminate resistance and secure supply lines. This involved massacres, destruction of villages, and seizure of resources.
• Use of chemical weapons - Japan also deployed chemical agents, such as mustard gas, against both military and civilian targets, violating international norms and causing severe suffering.
• Long-term effects - These tactics devastated rural communities, creating widespread famine and displacement, while fostering deep resentment that fuelled guerrilla resistance against Japanese forces.

Chinese resistance strategies and their consequences

Despite overwhelming odds, China mounted significant resistance efforts to slow Japan's advance. These strategies often involved desperate measures with profound human and environmental costs, reflecting the dire circumstances of the war.

Efforts to counter Japanese advances

• Guerrilla warfare - Both Nationalist and Communist forces engaged in guerrilla tactics, harassing Japanese supply lines and troops in occupied territories. This approach aimed to offset Japan's conventional military advantage.
• Urban defence - Chinese forces mounted prolonged defences in key cities like Shanghai, hoping to inflict heavy casualties and buy time for regrouping, though often at great cost to soldiers and civilians.
• Strategic sacrifices - Resistance included symbolic stands to boost national morale, even when military outcomes were predictable, showing a determination to prolong the conflict.

Breaching the Yellow River dikes (June 1938)

• Desperate measure - In a controversial decision, Chinese forces deliberately breached the dikes of the Yellow River to create massive flooding, intending to halt the Japanese advance towards central China.
• Catastrophic impact - The flooding displaced millions of civilians, destroyed farmland, and caused an estimated 500,000 to 800,000 deaths due to drowning, famine, and disease. Entire regions were rendered uninhabitable.
• Limited success - While the tactic temporarily delayed Japanese forces, it failed to alter the war's strategic balance and drew criticism for its devastating humanitarian toll, highlighting the tragic choices faced by Chinese leaders.

Capture of Wuhan and Guangzhou: Japan's control over eastern China

By late 1938, Japan had achieved significant territorial gains, capturing key cities that formed the backbone of China's eastern industrial and political centres. This phase appeared to cement Japanese dominance, though at great cost.

Strategic victories in 1938

• Fall of Wuhan (October 1938) - Wuhan, a major industrial and transport hub in central China, fell after a prolonged campaign. Its capture disrupted Chinese supply lines and further isolated resistance forces.
• Capture of Guangzhou (October 1938) - Taking this southern port city cut off China's access to foreign supplies via the coast, severely limiting Nationalist ability to import arms and resources.
• Apparent dominance - With control over eastern China's major cities, Japan seemed to hold strategic supremacy, dominating industrial centres and key communication routes.

Limits of control

• Overstretched forces - Despite territorial gains, Japan struggled to maintain control over vast rural areas, where guerrilla resistance persisted, draining resources and manpower.
• Continued resistance - The Nationalist government, now based in Chongqing, and Communist forces in the north refused to capitulate, ensuring the war remained a prolonged conflict.
• Strategic implications - While Japan controlled key urban centres, the inability to pacify the countryside foreshadowed the challenges of sustaining long-term occupation, setting the stage for a war of attrition.