Key facts and dates

Charles de Gaulle's return to power in 1958 marked a turning point for France, leading to the establishment of the Fifth Republic and significant political, social, and international changes. The following timeline captures the pivotal moments of his presidency and the transformation of France during this period.

Timeline of key events

• May 1958 – Crisis over Algeria triggers army threats of a coup, leading to De Gaulle's return.
• December 1958 – De Gaulle elected as President of the newly formed Fifth Republic.
• 1962 – Évian Accords grant independence to Algeria; constitutional reform introduces direct presidential elections.
• 1963 – Élysée Treaty signed with Germany; first veto of British EEC membership.
• 1966 – France withdraws from NATO's integrated military command.
• 1967 – Second veto of British EEC membership.
• May 1968 – Student protests and general strike involving 10 million workers shake France.
• April 1969 – De Gaulle resigns after losing a referendum on constitutional reform.

De Gaulle's return to power in 1958

In 1958, France faced a severe political crisis that brought Charles de Gaulle, a Second World War hero, back into the spotlight. The country was deeply divided over the ongoing war in Algeria, and the instability of the Fourth Republic, plagued by frequent government changes, demanded a strong response.

The May 1958 crisis and De Gaulle's emergence

• Algerian conflict as catalyst - The French struggle to maintain control over Algeria, a colony since 1830, intensified with growing resistance from the National Liberation Front (FLN). French settlers (known as pieds-noirs) and the army opposed any move towards independence, creating a volatile situation.
• Army threat of coup - In May 1958, French military leaders in Algeria threatened a coup against the government in Paris, fearing a policy of withdrawal. This heightened tensions and paralysed the political system.
• National Assembly's response - Amid fears of civil war, the National Assembly granted De Gaulle emergency powers to resolve the crisis, seeing him as the only figure capable of uniting the nation and preventing military intervention.
• Drafting a new constitution - De Gaulle oversaw the creation of a new constitution, establishing the Fifth Republic with a stronger executive branch. This marked a significant departure from the parliamentary instability of the Fourth Republic.
• Election as President - In December 1958, De Gaulle was elected as the first President of the Fifth Republic, solidifying his position as France's leader during a critical period.

Institutional changes under the Fifth Republic

The Fifth Republic introduced profound changes to France's political system, designed to provide stability and centralise authority under the President. These reforms aimed to address the weaknesses of the Fourth Republic, which had seen 21 governments in just 12 years.

Key features of the new political system

• Strong presidential system - The President was granted extensive powers, including a seven-year term, the ability to dissolve parliament, and the authority to call referendums on key issues.
• Appointment of Prime Minister - The President could appoint the Prime Minister, ensuring alignment with executive priorities, though the Prime Minister still required parliamentary support.
• Reduced role of parliament - The legislative branch's influence was curtailed, with limited ability to challenge the executive, marking a shift towards presidential dominance.
• 1962 constitutional reform - A significant change allowed for the direct election of the President by popular vote, further strengthening the office's legitimacy and connection to the public.
• Stability achieved - Unlike the frequent governmental collapses of the Fourth Republic, the Fifth Republic provided a more stable framework, enabling consistent policy-making and governance.

Domestic policies and the promotion of French grandeur

De Gaulle's domestic agenda focused on modernising France while restoring its status as a global power. His vision of 'grandeur' - national pride and independence - shaped policies that transformed the economy and society, though often through a centralised and technocratic approach.

Core elements of De Gaulle's domestic policies

• Economic modernisation - De Gaulle continued the post-war trend of state-led economic planning, particularly through the Fifth Plan, which used indicative planning to guide industrial growth, infrastructure development, and technological advancement.
• Development of nuclear weapons - The creation of the 'force de frappe' (nuclear strike force) was a cornerstone of De Gaulle's strategy to assert French autonomy, ensuring the country had an independent deterrent during the Cold War.
• Promotion of French grandeur - Policies were designed to enhance France's cultural and political influence, projecting an image of strength and independence on the world stage.
• Technocratic governance - De Gaulle relied on expert administrators to implement reforms, often bypassing traditional political processes, which streamlined decision-making but limited broader consultation.
• Centralisation and authoritarian tendencies - Power was concentrated in Paris and the presidency, with De Gaulle displaying a commanding style that critics saw as authoritarian, sometimes sidelining dissent or opposition.

Resolution of the Algerian question and its impact

The Algerian War (1954–1962) was one of the most divisive issues De Gaulle faced upon returning to power. His handling of the conflict evolved from ambiguity to a decisive push for independence, with profound consequences for France and Algeria.

Evolution of De Gaulle's approach to Algeria

1. Initial ambiguity - In 1958, De Gaulle's statement 'Je vous ai compris' (I have understood you) to French settlers suggested empathy with their desire to keep Algeria French, but it left his true intentions unclear.
2. Recognition of independence - Over time, De Gaulle acknowledged that Algerian independence was inevitable due to sustained resistance by the FLN and the unsustainable cost of the war.
3. Negotiations with FLN - Direct talks with the FLN, the main Algerian nationalist group, culminated in the Évian Accords of 1962, which granted Algeria full independence.
4. Opposition from settlers and military - The Organisation of the Secret Army (OAS), composed of French settlers and rogue military elements, resorted to terrorism to prevent independence, targeting both Algerian nationalists and French officials.
5. Consequences of independence - The exodus of nearly one million pieds-noirs (French settlers) to France caused social and economic strain, while the war left a lasting national trauma in France, marking a bitter end to its colonial era in North Africa.

Foreign policy and pursuit of French independence

De Gaulle's foreign policy was driven by a desire to restore French prestige and maintain independence from superpower dominance during the Cold War. He sought to position France as a leader in Europe and a voice for the Third World.

Key aspects of De Gaulle's foreign policy

• Withdrawal from NATO command - In 1966, France withdrew from NATO's integrated military command structure (while remaining in the alliance) to assert control over its own defence policies, reflecting De Gaulle's resistance to American influence.
• Vetoes on British EEC membership - De Gaulle blocked British entry into the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1963 and 1967, citing concerns over British ties to the United States and potential dilution of French influence in Europe.
• Rapprochement with Germany - The 1963 Élysée Treaty with West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer marked a historic reconciliation, fostering Franco-German cooperation as a foundation for European integration.
• Third World relationships - De Gaulle cultivated ties with newly independent African and Asian nations, positioning France as a champion of non-alignment and an alternative to American or Soviet dominance.
• Criticism of American hegemony - He openly challenged U.S. policies, advocating for a multipolar world where France could play a leading role independent of Cold War blocs.

The May 1968 events and De Gaulle's resignation

In May 1968, France faced a massive social and political crisis that tested De Gaulle's leadership. What began as student protests escalated into a nationwide movement, exposing deep societal discontent with his regime.

Developments during the May 1968 crisis

• Student protests - Starting at universities, students demanded educational reform and expressed frustration with rigid societal structures, occupying campuses and clashing with authorities.
• Factory occupations and general strike - The unrest spread as workers joined in, with around 10 million participating in a general strike, occupying factories and demanding better wages and conditions.
• De Gaulle's temporary flight - At the height of the crisis, De Gaulle briefly left France for a military base in Germany, creating uncertainty about his control, though he returned to reassert authority.
• Government concessions - The Grenelle Agreements offered workers wage increases and improved rights, partially defusing the strike, though many students remained dissatisfied.
• Referendum and resignation - In 1969, De Gaulle proposed a referendum on constitutional reforms to decentralise power and reform the Senate. When it was rejected by voters, he resigned in April 1969, viewing the loss as a personal rejection of his leadership.

The legacy of De Gaulle's leadership

De Gaulle's presidency left a complex and enduring impact on France, shaping its political institutions and international standing. While he achieved significant successes, his tenure also revealed limitations in adapting to a rapidly changing society.

Positive aspects of De Gaulle's legacy

• Stable institutions - The Fifth Republic's strong presidential system provided lasting political stability, enduring beyond his time in office and becoming a cornerstone of modern French governance.
• Restoration of prestige - De Gaulle successfully reasserted French influence globally through nuclear development, European leadership, and an independent foreign policy, restoring national pride after the humiliations of the Second World War.

Negative aspects of De Gaulle's legacy

• Authoritarian style - Critics point to his centralised control and dismissive attitude towards opposition as undemocratic, creating tensions with those who sought more participatory governance.
• Failure to adapt to social change - The May 1968 events highlighted De Gaulle's disconnect with younger generations and emerging social movements, revealing his inability to address demands for cultural and political liberalisation.