Key facts and dates

The period from 1927 to 1936 was marked by intense internal conflict in China between the Guomindang (GMD) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), alongside growing Japanese aggression. Key events during this time shaped the political landscape and eventually led to a temporary alliance against a common enemy.

Timeline of key events

• 1927 – Collapse of the First United Front, sparking violent conflict between GMD and CCP.
• 1930-1934 – GMD launches encirclement campaigns to destroy CCP base areas.
• 1934-1935 – The Long March sees CCP forces relocate under Mao Zedong's leadership.
• December 1936 – Xi'an Incident: Chiang Kai-shek kidnapped by Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng.
• Late December 1936 – Zhou Enlai negotiates Chiang's release, influenced by Stalin's intervention.
• 1937 – Formation of the Second United Front to resist Japanese aggression.

The breakdown of the First United Front and GMD-CCP conflict

In the early 20th century, China experienced deep political divisions, particularly between the Guomindang (GMD), a nationalist party led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which advocated for a socialist revolution. Initially, these two groups collaborated to unify China and resist warlord rule, but their alliance shattered with significant consequences.

Collapse of the First United Front

• Formation and goals - The First United Front, established in 1924, was a temporary alliance between the GMD and CCP, supported by Soviet aid, to defeat warlords and unify China under a nationalist banner.
• Breakdown in 1927 - After achieving military success in the Northern Expedition, Chiang Kai-shek turned against the CCP, fearing their growing influence. This led to the Shanghai Massacre in April 1927, where thousands of communists were executed or arrested, effectively ending the alliance.
• Resulting conflict - The split ignited a bitter civil war. The GMD sought to eliminate the CCP, forcing communists to retreat to rural base areas, known as soviets, where they reorganised and resisted.

This rupture set the stage for a decade of hostility, as the GMD focused on consolidating power while the CCP fought for survival, often in remote regions of China.

Chiang Kai-shek's policy of internal pacification before external resistance

During the 1930s, Chiang Kai-shek, as the leader of the GMD and head of the Chinese government, prioritised destroying the CCP over addressing the growing threat from Japan. This policy shaped China's political and military strategies during a critical period.

Key aspects of Chiang's policy

• Focus on internal enemies - Chiang believed that the CCP posed a greater long-term threat to national unity than foreign aggression. He famously stated that the communists were a "disease of the heart," while the Japanese were merely a "disease of the skin."
• Encirclement campaigns (1930-1934) - Chiang launched a series of military operations to surround and eliminate CCP strongholds, particularly in Jiangxi. These campaigns aimed to crush communist resistance through overwhelming force and blockades.
• Neglect of Japanese aggression - Despite Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and increasing territorial encroachments, Chiang avoided direct confrontation, focusing resources on internal conflict. This decision frustrated many Chinese who saw Japan as the immediate enemy.

This policy of prioritising internal pacification delayed a unified response to external threats, deepening public discontent and straining GMD legitimacy.

The Long March and the CCP's survival under Mao Zedong

Facing relentless GMD attacks, the CCP embarked on a strategic retreat that became a defining moment in their history. The Long March not only ensured their survival but also solidified Mao Zedong's leadership within the party.

The Long March (1934-1935)

• Origins of the retreat - After suffering heavy losses in the encirclement campaigns, particularly in Jiangxi, the CCP decided to abandon their base areas to evade annihilation by GMD forces.
• Journey and challenges - Over 100,000 communists, led initially by various leaders, embarked on a gruelling 6,000-mile trek across harsh terrain, facing GMD pursuit, hostile warlords, and extreme weather. Only about 8,000 survived by the time they reached Shaanxi in northern China.
• Mao's rise to power - During the march, Mao Zedong emerged as the dominant leader, advocating guerrilla tactics and ideological unity. His strategies gained support at key meetings, such as the Zunyi Conference in 1935, cementing his control over the CCP.
• Establishment of a new base - The survivors settled in Yan'an, Shaanxi, where they rebuilt their forces, gained peasant support through land reforms, and prepared for future struggles.

The Long March became a symbol of CCP resilience, transforming Mao into a legendary figure and providing the party with a secure base to reorganise.

The Xi'an Incident and the formation of the Second United Front

The Xi'an Incident of December 1936 was a turning point in Chinese politics, forcing a temporary halt to the civil war and paving the way for a united front against Japan. It involved the dramatic kidnapping of Chiang Kai-shek by his own allies.

Key events of the Xi'an Incident

• Kidnapping of Chiang Kai-shek - On 12 December 1936, Chiang was seized in Xi'an by Zhang Xueliang, a northeastern warlord, and Yang Hucheng, a local general. They were frustrated by Chiang's refusal to resist Japan, especially after losing Manchuria to Japanese control.
• Demands for unity - Zhang and Yang demanded an end to the civil war against the CCP and the formation of a united front to fight Japanese aggression, reflecting widespread public sentiment.
• Negotiations and Zhou Enlai's role - Zhou Enlai, a senior CCP leader known for his diplomatic skills, arrived in Xi'an to mediate. Representing the CCP, he advocated for Chiang's release in exchange for a commitment to resist Japan, aligning with broader national interests.
• Stalin's intervention - Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, concerned about a weakened China becoming vulnerable to Japan, pressured the CCP to secure Chiang's release, believing he was essential to lead a unified resistance.
• Outcome and release - After tense negotiations, Chiang was freed on 25 December 1936, agreeing to cease hostilities with the CCP and focus on Japan. This led to the informal establishment of the Second United Front in 1937.

Significance of the agreement

• Temporary alliance - The Second United Front marked a pragmatic truce between the GMD and CCP, allowing them to pool military resources against Japan following the full-scale invasion in 1937.
• Shift in policy - Chiang's release and the subsequent agreement forced a reversal of his earlier policy, prioritising national defence over internal conflict, though tensions between the GMD and CCP persisted.

This incident was crucial in redirecting China's focus towards external resistance, albeit with underlying distrust between the two parties.

Popular pressure for resistance against Japan and its political impact

During the 1930s, growing Japanese aggression intensified public demand for a unified response, influencing the political dynamics between the GMD and CCP. This pressure played a significant role in the events leading to the Xi'an Incident and beyond.

Sources and effects of popular pressure

• Japanese expansion - Japan's occupation of Manchuria in 1931, followed by further encroachments, angered many Chinese who felt humiliated by their government's inaction. Intellectuals, students, and workers organised protests and boycotts against Japanese goods.
• Criticism of GMD policy - Chiang's focus on eliminating the CCP, rather than confronting Japan, led to widespread frustration. Many saw this as a betrayal of national interests, eroding support for the GMD.
• Influence on political decisions - Public sentiment emboldened figures like Zhang Xueliang to take drastic action in Xi'an, reflecting the national mood. It also compelled both the GMD and CCP to prioritise resistance, culminating in the Second United Front.
• Long-term implications - While the united front provided a temporary reprieve, popular pressure continued to shape wartime politics, often highlighting the GMD's weaknesses and strengthening the CCP's image as defenders of the Chinese people through guerrilla warfare against Japan.

This groundswell of public opinion was a catalyst for change, pushing China towards a fragile unity in the face of an existential threat.