Male involvement in deviant and criminal subcultures

Many sociologists link male deviance to the need to express masculinity, especially among working-class youth who face limited opportunities for status. This can lead to involvement in gangs or violence as a way to gain respect and control.

Key sociological perspectives on male deviance

• Messerschmidt's view on expressing masculinity - Young working-class men often value respect and status from peers, leading them to build a 'hard' reputation through toughness and confrontation. Being able to handle aggressive situations becomes central to their identity.
• Connell's explanation of limited opportunities - A lack of constructive ways to express masculinity, such as through education or jobs, contributes to deviant choices. However, Connell stresses that masculinity is not an excuse for violence, as non-criminal forms exist.
• Miller's extension of masculine traits - Deviant behaviour is seen as a natural outgrowth of valued male qualities like physical power and toughness.
• Campbell's crisis of masculinity - The state contributes by blocking access to legitimate status, such as academic success or employment, pushing boys towards deviance to reclaim masculinity.
• Connell on compensatory violence - Male violence may compensate for feelings of powerlessness, but alternatives like non-violent masculinities should be promoted.

These perspectives show how societal structures and expectations channel male frustration into subcultures centred on dominance and risk-taking.

Female involvement in deviant and criminal subcultures

While male deviance is often linked to asserting power, female involvement is typically lower due to stricter social controls and fears of stigma. However, some evidence shows rising female violence, though it remains a small proportion of total offences. Females in subcultures may take on supportive or violent roles, but exploitation is common.

Reasons for lower female deviance

• Heidensohn's control theory - Girls face greater parental and peer controls, reducing opportunities for delinquency.
• Lees on reputation fears - Girls avoid deviance to prevent a 'bad reputation', and women fear being seen as 'double deviants' (both criminal and unfeminine).
• Policing biases - Police are less likely to profile females as criminal, so their deviance often goes unnoticed or unpunished.

These factors create barriers, making female subcultures less visible than male ones.

Evidence of female involvement in subcultures

• Background - Studies reveal varied roles for females in gangs, from active participation to victimisation.

• Klein's study of US street gangs - Examination of female gang members found that females acted as violently as males, challenging stereotypes and showing that gender does not always limit aggressive behaviour in subcultures.

• Centre for Social Justice research on UK gangs - Study of female gang members found that girls often faced sexual exploitation by older males, rather than equal participation, showing that female involvement can involve vulnerability rather than empowerment.

• Burman's observations on female violence - Found that female violence is increasing but still minimal compared to males.

In some cases, females use social skills for roles like 'fixers' (hiding items for the group), showing agency within constraints.

Gender differences in anti-school subcultures

Research on anti-school subcultures shows they are predominantly male, but female versions exist with distinct characteristics, often tied to gendered identities and how school can threaten traditional roles.

Male anti-school subcultures

• Background - These groups often emphasise hyper-masculinity, viewing education as unmanly.

• Mac an Ghaill's study of 'macho lads' - Study of working-class boys in a UK school found the group prioritised fighting, football, and sex; they bullied academic boys as 'gay' or feminine and rejected learning due to expected unemployment. This showed that school threatened their masculine identity, leading to hostility towards authority.

• Archer and Yamashita's research on 'bad boy' image - Found that lads adopted a hyper-masculine style, strongly anti-school.

Female anti-school subcultures

• Background - Girls' groups resist school but may value education differently, often challenging gender stereotypes.

• Jackson's study of 'laddish' girls - Study of working-class girls in UK schools found they smoked, swore, acted 'hard', and discussed sex openly; they saw being clever as cool but not hard work, leading to underachievement. This showed girls mimicked male 'laddish' behaviour to reject school norms.

• Blackman's research on New Wave Girls - Found the group resisted school stereotypes of femininity and expectations but were pro-education, with most applying to university. This showed they were anti-school but not anti-learning, focusing on gender resistance.