Gender and its influence on identity

Gender plays a key role in forming personal identity, especially in patriarchal societies where males hold dominant power and females are often viewed as inferior.

Sociologists argue that gender is not fixed by biology but is socially constructed, meaning it is created and reinforced through societal norms and interactions. This contrasts with sociobiologists, like Wilson, who suggest gender roles stem naturally from biological differences. Instead, sociologists, particularly feminists, emphasise that society teaches boys and girls to adopt specific masculine and feminine behaviours through a process called gender role socialisation.

Key perspectives on gender construction

• Social construction view - Gender identities are shaped by cultural norms rather than innate biology. For example, feminists note that if gender were purely biological, masculine and feminine traits would be identical across all societies, but they vary widely.
• Fluid nature of gender - Gender identity is not static; it can change over time and across cultures. Victorian Britain's rigid gender norms, for instance, differ greatly from the more flexible identities in 21st-century Britain.
• Hegemonic norms - These are dominant cultural ideas about gender that are presented as 'common sense', often marginalising alternative views. In Marxist terms, hegemonic refers to the ruling class's worldview being accepted by others as normal, making dissenting groups seem deviant.

Processes of gender role socialisation

Gender role socialisation is the way society teaches children to conform to expected masculine and feminine behaviours, starting from a young age. This process reinforces hegemonic norms. Oakley (1981), a feminist sociologist, identified four key processes through which this occurs, often involving parents and other agents of socialisation.

Oakley's four processes of gender socialisation

• Manipulation - Parents encourage or discourage behaviours based on gender norms. For example, rowdy play might be praised in boys but seen as inappropriate in girls, while crying could be discouraged in boys as 'unmanly'.
• Canalisation - Children's interests are directed towards gender-typical toys and activities. Boys might be given footballs or toy cars, while girls are encouraged towards dolls or dance classes, channelling their development along expected paths.
• Verbal appellation - Language is used to label children in gendered ways, reinforcing identities. Girls might be called 'pretty' or 'princess', whereas boys could be described as 'handsome' or 'little man'.
• Different activities - Children are involved in tasks deemed suitable for their gender. Girls may help with domestic chores like kitchen cleaning, while boys assist with outdoor tasks like washing the car.

These processes help embed culturally dominant or hegemonic masculine traits (such as toughness) and feminine traits (such as gentleness) into children's identities.

Changing feminine identities

Feminine identities have evolved significantly over the 20th and 21st centuries, moving away from traditional norms that emphasised subordination and domesticity. Research indicates that women increasingly view themselves as equals to men.

Data from the British Social Attitudes Survey (2017) shows that women are more likely to see themselves as equal to men rather than subordinate, highlighting a shift from past norms.

Sociologists identify multiple feminine identities in contemporary UK society:

• Traditional identity - Focused on motherhood.
• Breadwinner
• Career woman
• Single mother
• Ladette - Working-class girls adopting traditionally masculine behaviours, such as assertiveness, swearing, heavy drinking, and disrupting norms to gain popularity. Jackson (2006) describes ladettes as young women who smoke, drink, and act 'cool' like boys.

These identities demonstrate the fluid and diverse nature of femininity today.

Changing masculine identities

Masculine identities have also transformed, particularly since the late 20th century, due to economic shifts like globalisation and rising unemployment. Traditional hegemonic masculinity, centred on paid work, being the family breadwinner, and heading the household, declined from the 1980s as women entered the workforce and sometimes became sole earners.

Connell outlines alternative masculinities that emerged as hegemonic forms weakened:

• Subordinate masculinity - Involves traits opposite to hegemonic norms, such as sensitivity or focus on appearance. An example is the metrosexual male, who prioritises grooming and fashion.
• Marginalised masculinity - Lacks hegemonic characteristics due to factors like disability or minority ethnic background.

Some feminists adapt the subordinate concept to describe men who embrace 'feminised' roles, such as sharing housework, childcare, or becoming househusbands (often called 'new men') as women take on wage-earning responsibilities.

The crisis of masculinity

The loss of traditional male roles has led to what sociologists term a crisis of masculinity, where men feel uncertain about their identity. Mac an Ghaill (1994) argues this crisis stems from the decline of male-dominated jobs in heavy industry, high male unemployment, and women becoming breadwinners, leaving men feeling emasculated. Consequences include mental health issues like depression and higher suicide rates among men struggling with these changes.

Responses to the crisis of masculinity

In response to the crisis of masculinity, some young men have adopted hyper-masculine behaviours to reassert their identity.

Mac an Ghaill (1994) and Sewell suggest that hyper-masculinity has arisen, where young men turn to violence, promiscuity, and aggression to earn peer respect, compensating for lost traditional roles. Faludi's study of the 'Spur Posse', a subculture of young American working-class men, examines this response in detail.

Faludi's study of the Spur Posse

• Participants - Young working-class men in the US facing economic decline.
• Results - These men blamed feminism for their unemployment and loss of status, responding with sexual violence as their 'only remaining source of power'.