Understanding social mobility

Social mobility describes the ability of individuals or groups to change their position within the social hierarchy.

Types of social mobility

• Inter-generational mobility - This refers to changes in social position between different generations within a family. For example, if the child of a working-class parent, such as a milkman, becomes a middle-class professional like a teacher, this demonstrates upward inter-generational mobility.
• Intra-generational mobility - This involves changes in an individual's social position during their own lifetime. For instance, someone starting as a factory apprentice at age 18 might rise to become a company director by their 40s, showing upward intra-generational mobility.

Meritocracy and social class in the UK

The UK is often described as a meritocratic society, where social advancement is based on merit - individual ability, talent, and hard work - rather than inherited privileges or social class.

Open versus closed societies

• Open society - Characterised by high social mobility, where individual ability and hard work are the main criteria for advancement.
• Closed society - Features little to no mobility.

Challenges in researching social mobility

Studying social mobility presents several problems that can affect findings.

Key problems in social mobility research

• Inconsistent occupational classification - Different studies use varying methods to categorise jobs into social classes, making it hard to compare results across research.
• Gender bias - Many studies focus primarily on men, ignoring women.
• Exclusion of certain groups - Research often overlooks the very wealthy and the poorest, who may not fit typical job-based categories, leading to incomplete data.
• Long-term observation needs - Patterns of mobility take years to emerge, especially when assessing the effects of government policies, which complicates studying current trends.

Key studies on social mobility

Oxford Mobility Study (OMS): Goldthorpe and Halsey (1970s)

• Background - This study examined inter-generational mobility among 10,000 men over two generations.

• Method - Analysed occupational changes between fathers and sons.

• Results - Introduced the 1:2:4 Rule of Relative Hope, showing that for every working-class boy reaching the professional class, two from the intermediate class and four from the professional class achieved the same. Absolute mobility increased due to service sector expansion in the 1950s, but relative mobility remained unchanged over 50 years.

• Conclusions - Class background significantly influences mobility chances, with working-class individuals at a disadvantage.

• Limitations - Focused only on men and used data from a specific period.

Goldthorpe and Payne (1980s) later confirmed the 1:2:4 rule still applied.

Savage and Egerton study (using NCDS data)

• Background - This research drew from the National Child Development Study (NCDS), a longitudinal study tracking people born in 1958.

• Method - Compared birth class with social class in 1991 for both men and women.

Roberts (2001) study (using NCDS data)

• Method - Analysed NCDS data on class mobility.
• Results - 55% of working-class men remained in the working class; middle-class children had twice the chance of securing middle-class jobs compared to working-class children.
• Conclusions - Despite a shrinking working class, escape from it had not significantly improved.

Lee Savage's Snakes and Ladders study (1990s-2000s)

• Method - Tracked earnings mobility for people in their 30s across two decades.
• Results - Long-range upward mobility improved by over 20%, but overall mobility was low; only 3% of low earners in the 1990s and 6% in the 2000s significantly increased earnings.
• Conclusions - Low earners often stayed low, indicating limited mobility.

Social Mobility and Child Poverty Commission (2015)

• Method - Analysed data on individuals born in the early 1980s.
• Results - About 80% were in a different class from their parents, but much was short-range upward mobility.

Wilkinson and Pickett (2009)

• Method - Compared international data on income inequality and mobility.
• Results - Countries like the UK with high income inequality have low social mobility; nations like Sweden with lower inequality show higher mobility.
• Conclusions - Inequality perpetuates class-based mobility restrictions.

OECD report (2015)

• Method - Global comparison of mobility trends.
• Results - UK has low social mobility compared to other developed nations, worsening since the 1970s; fewer from poor families attend university, while those from wealthier homes increase.

Evaluating social mobility studies

Criticisms and counterarguments

• Saunders' critique of Goldthorpe and Halsey - Saunders accused them of left-wing bias for emphasising relative mobility, which portrays the UK as closed and unmeritocratic. He argued absolute mobility is more important, showing working-class progress through education. Saunders also controversially claimed middle-class success stems from inherited intelligence, though this ignores evidence of advantages from economic, cultural, and social capital.
• Feminist perspectives - Critics like Abbott highlighted the Oxford study's male focus, ignoring women as wage-earners and their workplace disadvantages. Future studies should address gender inequalities in mobility.