Understanding socialisation and its agencies

Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalise the norms, values, and behaviours expected in their society. This process helps people develop their sense of self and understand how to interact with others. Socialisation occurs through various agencies, which are groups or institutions that influence this learning.

Types of socialisation

Agencies of socialisation can be divided into two main types based on when they have the most impact.

Primary socialisation:

• Happens during early childhood, typically within the family.
• Lays the foundation for basic skills, language, and cultural norms.
• Shapes a child's initial understanding of the world.

Secondary socialisation:

• Occurs later in life, from childhood through adulthood.
• Involves agencies outside the family, including peer groups, education, media, religion, and the workplace.
• Builds on primary socialisation, refining behaviours and adapting individuals to broader social roles.

The family as an agency of primary socialisation

The family is the primary agency of socialisation, where children first learn societal norms and values. This occurs through daily interactions, such as parents teaching manners, language, and emotional responses.

Key roles of the family

• Nurturing and emotional development - Families provide care and support, helping children develop trust and security. Functionalists argue that the female often acts as the expressive leader, focusing on emotional nurturing and socialising children into gender roles.
• Transmission of cultural norms - Parents pass on traditions, beliefs, and behaviours, such as table manners or moral values, which form the basis of a child's identity.
• Preparation for society - Through rewards and punishments, families teach conformity, preparing children for wider social interactions.

This early influence is crucial because it shapes foundational attitudes, though it can vary by family structure, culture, or socioeconomic background.

Peer groups as an agency of secondary socialisation

A peer group consists of individuals of similar age and status, such as friends, schoolmates, or members of subcultures sharing interests in music, fashion, or activities. Peer groups become increasingly influential during childhood and adolescence, often overshadowing family in shaping identity.

Influence of peer groups

• Conformity and popularity - Young people seek acceptance from peers, leading them to adopt group norms to fit in. This desire for popularity can encourage conformity, sometimes resulting in risky behaviours if peers engage in delinquent acts.
• Identity formation - Peers help develop a sense of self separate from family, through shared experiences and role models. However, failure to conform can lead to bullying or exclusion.
• Cultural comfort zones - As observed by sociologist Tony Sewell, young people often prefer associating with those from similar backgrounds.

Peer groups are powerful because they dominate free time.

Media as an agency of secondary socialisation

The mass media includes television, films, social media, and computer games, serving as a key agency of secondary socialisation by exposing individuals to a wide range of ideas and images.

Positive and negative influences of media

• Shaping behaviour - Media sociologists suggest that exposure to violent content in films or games may increase anti-social behaviour among young people, though direct causation is debated.
• Impact on gender identity - Feminist sociologists argue that media often presents over-sexualised images of women, emphasising thinness and ideal body types. This can lead to body anxiety, eating disorders like anorexia (self-starvation) or bulimia (bingeing followed by purging), and negative self-image.
• Creation of a 'bulimic society' - Sociologist Jock Young describes modern society as 'bulimic', where media promotes consumerism and celebrity culture, making material success seem accessible to all. However, this excludes deprived groups, fostering envy and potentially leading to crime to acquire status symbols.

Its role in socialisation is not fully proven as the sole cause of behaviours like violence.

Religion as an agency of secondary socialisation

Religion involves organised beliefs and practices that guide moral behaviour, historically serving as a major agency of socialisation in the UK through Christianity.

Decline and persistence of religious influence

• Secularisation - This refers to the decline in religious beliefs, practices, and influence in society. Since the mid-20th century, church attendance has fallen, reducing religion's role in shaping values like those on marriage and sexuality.
• Continued relevance in communities - Despite secularisation, religion remains vital for many ethnic minorities. For instance, Muslim communities often participate in practices like fasting during Ramadan (a month of daytime fasting), celebrating Eid (a festival marking the end of Ramadan), praying regularly, and attending mosque.
• Broader societal impact - Religious morals still influence laws and attitudes on issues like abortion, divorce, euthanasia (assisted dying), and same-sex relationships. Thriving faiths, such as Pentecostalism (a charismatic Christian movement) and non-Christian religions among migrants, maintain religion's socialising role in multi-faith Britain.

Sociologists debate whether secularisation has fully diminished religion's influence, as it persists in ethical frameworks and community life.

Education as an agency of secondary socialisation

Education systems, particularly schools, overlap with peer groups and serve as a key agency by teaching both explicit knowledge and implicit social norms.

The formal curriculum

The formal curriculum consists of academic subjects like English literature, language, and history, which reflect cultural values. For example, it often emphasises British achievements, reinforcing national identity through exams and qualifications.

The hidden curriculum

The hidden curriculum involves the unspoken lessons from school routines and organisation that promote conformity. This includes learning punctuality, obedience, and acceptance of hierarchy.

Marxist sociologists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis (1976) argue that the hidden curriculum prepares working-class children for low-skilled jobs by mirroring workplace structures.

The workplace as an agency of secondary socialisation

The workplace socialises adults through daily routines, teaching skills and norms essential for professional roles.

Formal and informal aspects

• Formal rules - Workplaces enforce codes of conduct, dress, and duties, with sanctions like warnings or dismissal for non-compliance. This teaches responsibility and organisational hierarchy.
• Informal elements - Social interactions, such as 'canteen culture' (informal attitudes during breaks), shape behaviour. In police forces, this might include racist banter, leading to stereotyping of ethnic minorities as criminals.

The workplace reinforces lifelong socialisation, adapting individuals to economic and social expectations.