The social construction of age

Ageing refers to the physical and biological changes that occur over a person's lifetime. However, societies divide this process into distinct categories, such as childhood, adolescence (also known as youth or teenage years), young adulthood, middle age, and old age. These divisions are not simply natural stages but are shaped by social expectations, which influence how people in each category are expected to behave.

This occurs because age categories, or age strata, are social constructions - meanings created by society rather than fixed biological facts.

Consequences of age as a social construction

• Variations in social status - Different age groups experience unequal levels of respect and authority.
• Impact on self-esteem - Societal views can affect how individuals perceive their own worth.
• Prejudice and marginalisation - Age-based stereotypes can lead to exclusion and inequality.

Ageism and its effects on different age groups

Ageism is the process of negatively stereotyping and discriminating against people based solely on their chronological age - the number of years since their birth.

Ageism towards older people

Butler highlighted how ageism assumes that all older individuals share the same characteristics, ignoring their diverse life histories, needs, and expectations.

Ageism towards young people

Best argues that young people, particularly those in youth, can also experience ageism. This often appears through moral panics, which are exaggerated public concerns about the behaviour or cultural habits of young people.

Age inequalities in work and employment for young people

The social construction of youth in the UK creates specific inequalities in employment, treating young people as a distinct group with limited rights and opportunities.

Legal and structural restrictions

• Work limitations - Laws restrict the types of jobs young people can do and the hours they can work; for example, those in full-time school cannot exceed 12 hours per week during term time.
• Minimum wage requirements - Employers must pay a national minimum wage.
• Employer perceptions - Young workers are often given less responsibility and status across occupations.

These factors contribute to patterns of inequality, such as rising unemployment among 16- to 24-year-olds since 2004.

Age inequalities in work and employment for older people

Old age is also socially constructed, with the state defining key milestones like retirement age - the point at which individuals can stop working and receive pensions.

Demographic trends and challenges

The UK has an ageing population, where the proportion of older people is increasing. For instance, by 2021, 33% of the population was over 55, and those over 65 outnumbered those under 16. This shift is often called a 'demographic time bomb' due to pressures on pensions, adult social care, and the National Health Service (NHS).

Pension age changes:

• It rose to 66 for both men and women by 2020 (previously, it was slightly lower for women).
• It will rise again to 67 between 2026 and 2028.

Scase and Scales describe a divide among older people: some are affluent early retirees with comfortable lifestyles, while others live near the breadline and continue working to avoid poverty.

Ray et al. study:

• Ray et al. note that retirement age often varies by social class and status.
• High-status individuals, like business leaders, can resist official retirement rules and keep working, avoiding poverty and negative stereotypes.
• In 2017, figures like Lord Alan Sugar (aged 69), Rupert Murdoch (85), Richard Branson (66), Mick Jagger (73), and Paul McCartney (74) were still active in their fields, illustrating how power and wealth allow some to defy age norms.

Research on retirement experiences: Milne

Milne's study revealed two contrasting worlds among UK retirees.

Results:

• Affluent group - Many retirees are well-off, with state pensions supplemented by occupational pensions and savings. Their spending power, known as the 'grey pound', attracts businesses and advertisers.
• Low-income group - Others, often from low-paid jobs without occupational pensions, have little savings and live alone. They frequently work post-retirement to afford basics.

Experiences and interpretations of retirement

Work provides more than income; it offers identity, status, self-esteem, purpose, social wellbeing, and networks.

Negative aspects of retirement

• Social redundancy - Retirees may feel a loss of identity, status, and purpose.
• Loneliness - Without daily interactions, some may feel cut off from social contacts at work.

Positive interpretations of retirement - Jones et al.

• Background - Jones et al. conducted a study on how retirees view this life stage.
• Results - Many saw retirement positively, with some choosing early retirement to pursue creativity, new challenges, and interests.

Additionally, some retirees engage in voluntary work to regain purpose and combat loneliness.