Gender and life chances

Education plays a central role in shaping life chances and social mobility. However, gender differences in educational experiences and outcomes can either enhance or limit these opportunities.

Gender differences in educational achievement

Evidence consistently shows that females tend to achieve higher results than males across various stages of education. This pattern begins early and continues through to higher education.

Female educational performance:

• GCSE performance - Girls regularly secure a higher proportion of top grades, such as A* to C (or levels 5 to 9), compared to boys.
• Higher education entry - Data from the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) in 2013 indicates that women were about a third more likely than men to enter university.
• Degree outcomes - In 2014, a higher number of females than males obtained upper-second class degrees or better from UK universities.

The hidden curriculum and gender-stereotyped choices

Despite females' stronger overall performance, educational choices often remain influenced by gender norms.

Impact of gender stereotypes in education:

• Subject selection patterns - In secondary schools and higher education, the hidden curriculum means that subject choices still tend to follow gender stereotypes.
• Impact on career paths - These stereotyped choices contribute to gender segregation in the workplace. Degree subjects often shape career options, limiting opportunities for upward social mobility.

Patterns and trends in gender inequalities

Gender inequalities persist in various areas of life, particularly in work and employment, where factors such as horizontal and vertical segregation, poverty, health issues, and educational choices make it harder for females to achieve upward social mobility.

Gender inequalities in work and employment

The UK labour market exhibits clear patterns of gender inequality, often divided into horizontal and vertical segregation.

Horizontal segregation in the workplace

Horizontal segregation occurs when certain sectors or types of jobs are dominated by one gender, leading to a concentration of males and females in different areas of employment.

Female-dominated sectors:

• Women represent around 79% of the workforce in health and social work.
• In the private sector, they are over-represented in roles like clerical work, administration, retail, and personal services, including secretarial positions, cleaning, adult social care, and catering.

Male-dominated sectors:

• Men are predominantly found in skilled manual trades and upper professional roles.
• They are ten times more likely than women to work in skilled trades and are also more common in management and senior official positions.
• Additionally, men are more likely to be self-employed.

Vertical segregation and the glass ceiling

Vertical segregation refers to the unequal distribution of males and females across different levels of job status, skill, and pay within the same occupational groups.

Characteristics of vertical segregation:

• Concentration at lower levels - Within many professions, females tend to occupy junior or less skilled roles.
• The glass ceiling - This term describes barriers, such as discrimination or restrictive policies, that prevent women from reaching top positions. Women can see senior roles but struggle to access them.
• Progress timelines - Research from the Equality and Human Rights Commission in 2011 reveals that, at the current pace, it could take 50 years for women to achieve equal status with men in senior judiciary roles and 70 years in top management positions in Britain's leading 100 companies.

The gender pay gap

• According to the Office for National Statistics (ONS) in 2016, the overall pay gap based on gross hourly earnings was 18%.
• This widens to nearly 25% in the private sector but is narrower at 17.1% in the public sector.

Contributing factors:

• The Fawcett Society identifies the 'motherhood penalty' as a key cause, where women often shift to part-time work after having children.
• Additionally, poor enforcement of women's rights allows discrimination to persist, with the state rarely prosecuting employers for violations.

Impacts of pregnancy and maternity on employment

• Dismissals and missed opportunities - Despite legal protections, around 30,000 women in the UK are dismissed annually after becoming pregnant.
• An estimated 440,000 women face barriers to promotion or higher pay due to pregnancy and maternity leave.