Introduction to subcultural theories

Subcultural theories in sociology seek to explain why certain groups, particularly young working-class males, engage in deviant or criminal behaviour as part of collectives, such as gangs. These theories emphasise how deviance often occurs in groups rather than individually, highlighting the role of shared values and norms that differ from those of mainstream society. This occurs because individuals may form subcultures – smaller groups within society with their own distinct beliefs and behaviours – to cope with challenges in achieving societal goals. Subcultural theories build on earlier ideas, like those from Robert Merton, but focus more on juvenile delinquency, which involves crimes committed by young people.

Key features of subcultural theories

• Group dynamics - Deviance is collective, often involving gangs where members support and reinforce each other's actions.
• Non-utilitarian crimes - These are offences without clear economic gain, such as vandalism or joy-riding, which provide status or excitement within the group.
• Response to strain - Many theories link subcultures to frustrations from failing to meet societal expectations, leading to alternative ways of gaining respect.

This approach differs from individualistic theories by stressing how social and cultural contexts shape deviant behaviour, particularly among disadvantaged youth.

Albert Cohen's theory of status frustration

Albert Cohen developed a subcultural theory to address gaps in earlier explanations, such as Merton's strain theory, which did not fully account for juvenile delinquency. Cohen focused on why young working-class boys commit non-utilitarian crimes – offences like gang violence or hooliganism that offer no financial benefit but occur in groups. He argued that this stems from a mismatch between societal goals and the means available to achieve them, leading to feelings of alienation.

The concept of status frustration

Status frustration refers to the anger and resentment felt by individuals who are denied respect or value in society. This leads them to reject mainstream norms and form subcultures.

Cohen's process of status frustration:

1. Cultural goals and status - Most young people seek status, which means feeling respected by others. Middle-class youth often gain this through educational success, supported by their families and schools.
2. Barriers for working-class boys - Working-class parents may not provide the skills needed for academic achievement, resulting in these boys being placed in lower school streams or sets. This limits their access to knowledge and qualifications.
3. Consequences of failure - These boys often leave school with poor qualifications, entering low-paid jobs or unemployment. Society denies them status, causing low self-esteem and a sense of anomie – a state of normlessness where rules seem irrelevant.
4. Formation of subcultures - To cope, they form gangs with similar peers. These subcultures invert mainstream values, rewarding anti-school behaviour and delinquency with status and respect.

As a result, deviant acts become a way to regain self-worth, even if they harm wider society. Cohen's theory highlights how education and class inequalities drive group deviance.

Cloward and Ohlin's illegitimate opportunity structures

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin built on subcultural ideas but criticised Cohen's focus on status frustration as too simplistic. Instead, they proposed that deviant behaviour depends on the availability of illegitimate opportunities – unauthorised paths to success – in a young person's environment. This leads to different types of subcultures based on local conditions, rather than just frustration.

Types of illegitimate opportunity structures

Cloward and Ohlin identified three distinct structures, each producing a specific subculture:

• Criminal subcultures - These emerge in areas with established adult crime networks. Young people are mentored into organised gangs, learning skills through an 'apprenticeship' in crime. This provides a clear path up a criminal hierarchy, often involving utilitarian crimes like theft for profit.
• Conflict subcultures - In unstable, deprived urban areas without organised crime, youth form territorial street gangs. These focus on violence and turf wars as a way to gain status, often due to a lack of other opportunities.
• Retreatist subcultures - For those who fail to join the above, retreatist groups form around escapism, such as recreational drug use.

This framework shows how local contexts determine the form of deviance, with subcultures adapting to available opportunities rather than just reacting to frustration.

Walter Miller's focal concerns in working-class culture

Walter Miller offered a different perspective on subcultural theory, rejecting ideas like strain or status frustration. He argued that deviant behaviour among working-class youth is not a response to failure but an extension of normal working-class values, learned from adult role models, particularly males. These values, or 'focal concerns', are exaggerated in youth subcultures, leading to conflicts with authority. Miller saw this as a cultural expression rather than a pathological reaction.

Key focal concerns in working-class culture

Miller identified several core values that shape behaviour:

• Toughness and masculinity - A strong emphasis on physical strength and bravery, often leading to violence as a way to prove manhood.
• Trouble - Viewing conflict as a normal part of life, where violence is seen as a legitimate way to solve problems.

According to Miller, these concerns are functional, helping individuals cope with boredom and limited opportunities. However, when acted out in groups, they clash with middle-class norms, appearing as delinquency. This theory portrays working-class subcultures as a natural cultural variation, not a deviant response to strain.