The social construction of racism in Marxist theory

Marxism is a sociological perspective that views society as shaped by economic structures, particularly the conflict between social classes under capitalism. In this context, racism is not seen as a natural or biological phenomenon but as something deliberately created and maintained by those in power to support economic exploitation.

Racism refers to the belief that one racial or ethnic group is superior to others, often leading to discrimination and inequality. Marxists argue that racism is socially constructed, meaning it is created and reinforced by social processes rather than being innate.

Oliver Cromwell Cox's view on racism and capitalism

Oliver Cromwell Cox, a Marxist sociologist, argues that racism is constructed by the capitalist class – those who own the means of production, such as factories and land – to justify the exploitation of less powerful groups.

Key aspects of Cox's theory:

• Historical context - Cox points to examples like the enslavement of people on plantations in the American South, where racism was used to rationalise treating enslaved individuals as property for profit.
• Development in capitalism - In the 20th-century USA, Cox observes that corporate interests worked with trade unions to exclude Black people from union membership, limiting their access to better pay and conditions. However, during strikes, businesses would bring in Black workers as strike-breakers at lower wages to undermine white workers' actions.
• Racism as ideology - Racism, as Cox sees it, is an ideology – a set of powerful beliefs – that promoted white superiority in the 18th and 19th centuries to support the imperial goals of global capitalism, such as colonisation and resource extraction.

Example of racism as ideology

A clear illustration is the 19th-century concept of drapetomania, a supposed psychological condition proposed by physician Samuel Cartwright. This claimed that enslaved people who tried to escape had a mental illness. This idea was later exposed as pseudo-science, but it served to justify exploitation at the time.

Criticisms of Cox's theory

Cox's approach has been criticised for being 'race-blind'. Critics argue that his evidence for racism being deliberately engineered by the capitalist class is not fully convincing.

Key Marxist explanations for ethnic inequality

Marxists like Stephen Castles and Godfried Kosack (1973) extend these ideas by viewing ethnic minorities as part of the broader working class, exploited under capitalism. They argue that racial conflict, discrimination, and inequality are not standalone issues but symptoms of deeper class-based problems in society.

Castles and Kosack suggest that capitalism deliberately fosters racism to maintain control and maximise profits.

Minority ethnic groups as a reserve army of labour

Reserve army of labour refers to a pool of unemployed or underemployed workers who can be drawn into the workforce when needed, helping to keep wages low.

How the reserve army of labour works:

• Role in capitalism - People from minority ethnic groups are often treated as this reserve army, similar to how women have been historically viewed. They are employed in large numbers during economic booms.
• Economic benefits - This surplus of labour power – more workers available than jobs needed – weakens the bargaining power of all workers, including white ones, by creating competition that drives down wages.

Castles and Kosack's study focused on migrant workers to show how ethnic minorities faced systematic disadvantage. Their conclusions suggest that ethnic inequality stems from class exploitation, with racism used to mask the real issues of capitalist inequality.

Ideological functions of racism in capitalism

Marxists argue that the capitalist class encourages racism through ideology for specific reasons, preventing unity among workers and protecting the system. This occurs through three main processes.

Legitimisation

• Racism helps to justify low pay and poor conditions for minority ethnic workers by portraying them as second-class citizens.
• Employers, trade unions, and mass media present minority ethnic groups as undeserving of equal rights, allowing capitalists to profit from cheap labour.
• This keeps minority workers available as a flexible, low-cost workforce, benefiting profits without raising overall wage levels.

Divide and rule

• This strategy prevents workers from uniting by fostering division along racial lines.
• By highlighting competition for jobs, employers play on white workers' fears of being replaced by cheaper minority ethnic labour. This discourages demands for higher wages or strikes.
• A divided workforce is weaker, making it easier for capitalists to maintain control and suppress collective action for better conditions.

Scapegoating

• Scapegoating means blaming a vulnerable group for wider problems to deflect attention from the real causes.
• During crises like unemployment or housing shortages, frustration is directed at minority ethnic groups rather than the capitalist system.
• For example, racist ideology, amplified by media, might claim that immigrants 'steal jobs' or 'take over businesses', protecting the wealthy from criticism and calls for change.

These functions work together to sustain capitalism by masking class exploitation behind racial divisions.

Evaluations of Marxist theories of ethnic inequality

While Marxist theories provide insights into how capitalism intersects with racism, they face several criticisms that question their relevance and completeness in explaining ethnic inequality today.

Limitations in applicability

• Historical focus - Castles and Kosack's work is based on migrant labour in the 1950s and 1960s, making it more relevant to first-generation immigrants. It struggles to explain ongoing inequalities after de-industrialisation, which has changed job markets in Britain.
• Ignore success stories - Marxists often overlook economically and politically successful individuals from minority ethnic groups. For example, lists like the 'Powerlist' highlight influential Black Britons, including billionaires, politicians, and CEOs, suggesting that class alone does not determine outcomes.

Changes in economy and society

• Shifting job landscape - In modern Britain, traditional manual jobs have declined, so Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic (BAME) workers are not necessarily competing with white workers for these roles. Higher BAME unemployment rates indicate that the economy may no longer rely on a reserve army of labour.
• Institutional racism - BAME graduates face higher unemployment than white graduates, pointing to barriers like institutional racism. This might stem from a conservative white culture resistant to change rather than deliberate capitalist strategy.

Evolving attitudes towards racism

Cultural shifts have occurred over the last 50 years. Surveys show that most people now disapprove of openly racist comments, jokes, or actions, suggesting that racism as an ideology lacks a strong cultural base in contemporary society.