Introduction to subcultures and social class

UK society is organised into social classes, and these classes often develop specific subcultural characteristics.

The debate on social class as a subcultural influence

There is ongoing discussion among sociologists about whether social class remains a key factor in shaping subcultures today. Postmodernists argue that social class no longer significantly influences subcultures in the UK, believing that class as a subcultural force is "dead and buried." In contrast, the sociologist Richard Hoggart observed that the "coffin" of social class remains "persistently empty," suggesting its influence persists.

Teddy Boy subculture

Key study: Tony Jefferson (1976)

• Background - Jefferson, a Neo-Marxist sociologist, analysed the Teddy Boys as a form of working-class resistance.

• Results - Teddy Boys adopted an elaborate dress code, including brightly coloured Edwardian-style jackets. This style mocked middle-class fashion and showed contempt for the class system.

• Conclusions - Their use of casual violence was seen as ideological resistance to the economic decay of working-class neighbourhoods and exclusion from post-war affluence. This behaviour protested social inequalities.

Skinhead subculture

Key study: John Clarke (1976)

• Background - Clarke focused on how skinheads reacted to the breakdown of traditional working-class life.

• Results - Skinheads adopted clothing like rolled-up jeans, braces, and steel toe-capped Dr. Martens boots, which symbolically recreated the image of manual factory workers.

• Conclusions - This style was a "magical" attempt to revive working-class masculinity and community amid the decline of traditional neighbourhoods and jobs. It represented a nostalgic resistance to social change.

Key study: Phil Cohen (1972)

• Background - Cohen also studied skinheads, emphasising their attitudes towards immigration.

• Results - Skinheads displayed aggressive and violently racist behaviour towards immigrants.

• Conclusions - This racism was a reaction to immigration disrupting exclusively white working-class neighbourhoods. Through dress and actions, skinheads demonstrated symbolic resistance to broader social changes, defending their class-based territory.

Punk subculture

Key study: Dick Hebdige (1979)

• Background - Hebdige, a Neo-Marxist sociologist, explored the meanings behind punk style and its societal impact.

• Results - Punks engaged in bricolage, which is a process where everyday objects are repurposed to create new meanings – for example, wearing safety pins as piercings or bin liners as clothing. This style was deliberately shocking and unconventional.

• Conclusions - Punk represented resistance to dominant cultural values in British society, aiming to provoke the establishment. However, Hebdige noted that such subcultures are short-lived due to incorporation, where capitalism commercialises rebellious styles, turning them into consumer products and stripping their ideological power.

Capitalism and the incorporation of subcultures

As Hebdige observed, capitalism quickly adapts to cultural challenges through incorporation. This process involves commercialising subcultural elements – such as fashion or music – and selling them back to the public. As a result, what starts as a symbol of rebellion becomes just another product, losing its critical edge. Hebdige notes that youth subcultures like punk are fairly short-lived because capitalism quickly commercialises their styles, stripping them of their ideological power and turning them into consumer items.