Defining ethnicity and its role in identity

Ethnicity refers to a sense of cultural awareness and shared identity among groups who have a common history, heritage, or background. This shared sense helps individuals feel connected to their group, often through elements like traditions, customs, and values. As a result, ethnicity plays a key part in forming personal and group identities, creating a feeling of belonging.

Ethnic groups often use their ethnicity to draw boundaries between themselves and others. This can lead to ideas of 'them' and 'us', where differences are highlighted to strengthen in-group solidarity. For example, these boundaries might be based on shared experiences or perceived distinctions from other groups. This process reinforces social identities and can influence how people interact in society.

Factors shaping ethnic identity

• Religion - Shared beliefs and practices
• Language - Helps maintain cultural ties
• Skin colour - Often linked to visible differences
• Regional origin - Ties to a specific homeland
• Experiences of racism - Can heighten group awareness

Intersections of ethnicity with other identity aspects

Ethnicity does not exist in isolation; it overlaps with other parts of a person's identity, creating complex and multifaceted self-concepts. This intersection means that ethnic identity can vary depending on how it combines with elements like nationality, religion, gender, social class, and age.

Example - Nationality and generational differences

• Many Muslims in the UK are third or fourth generation, meaning they were born in Britain.
• Most are under 30 and bilingual, speaking both English and their family's original language.
• This leads to a fluid ethnic identity that blends British nationality with heritage from countries like Pakistan, India, or Bangladesh.
• As a result, their sense of identity often differs from first-generation migrants who arrived in the mid-20th century, as younger generations feel more integrated into British society.

Example - Religion and family values

• During primary socialisation – the early process where children learn norms and values from family – Asian children often absorb traditions emphasising respect for elders, duty, obligation, honour, avoidance of shame, and prayer.
• The mother tongue, such as Urdu, Punjabi, Gujarati, or Hindi, is crucial for passing on religious values and connecting generations.
• This intersection of ethnicity and religion helps children become bilingual, switching between languages depending on the context.

Example - Responses to external pressures

• Some young Pakistani Muslims develop a strong Islamic identity in reaction to Islamophobia – prejudice or discrimination against Muslims – and global events like the US-UK invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories, or conspiracy theories about 9/11.
• These factors can heighten ethnic awareness, blending it with religious identity as a form of resistance or solidarity.

However, most young Muslims in Britain feel well-integrated and express a strong sense of belonging to British society. Research shows little evidence of widespread turns to fundamentalist Islam as an oppositional identity; extremist views are held only by a small minority. This highlights how ethnicity can intersect positively with nationality, fostering integration rather than conflict.

Changing ethnic identities and hybrid forms

Ethnic identities are not static; they can evolve over time, especially in diverse societies like the UK. This change often leads to hybrid identities, where individuals blend elements from multiple cultural roots. A hybrid identity occurs when someone identifies with two or more cultural backgrounds, creating a unique mix that reflects their experiences.

For instance, a British-born Pakistani male might feel connected to his parents' homeland, supporting Pakistan in cricket against England or India, while speaking Urdu at home but mixing English and Urdu with friends. He might also support England's football team, showing how identities shift by context. This fluidity demonstrates how ethnic identities adapt to new environments, blending heritage with contemporary influences.

Research on hybrid identities - 'Brasian' identity (Johal, 1998)

• Many educated young Asians adopt a dual identity called 'Brasian', combining British and Asian elements.
• They use their Asian identity at home but wear a 'white mask' – adapting behaviours to fit in with white peers – in public spaces like school.
• This allows them to navigate different social worlds effectively.

Research on hybrid identities - Negotiated identities among Muslim women (Butler)

• Third-generation British Muslim women access various identities.
• Some embrace traditional dress to reflect their ascribed status (identity given at birth), while others negotiate by adopting Western views on education, careers, and equality, yet retain traditions like arranged marriages.
• This shows how gender intersects with ethnicity in identity formation.

Research on hybrid identities - 'Black Atlantic' identity (Gilroy, 1993)

• African-Caribbean youth in the UK identify with a 'Black Atlantic' culture, sharing experiences of racism and powerlessness with Black Americans.
• This transatlantic hybrid strengthens ethnic solidarity across borders.

Research on hybrid identities - Cultural hybridity among white youth (Back, 1996; Nayak, 2003)

• White youths in the 1990s adopted Black cultural elements, such as speech, dress, music, and brands.
• Nayak describes them as 'white wannabees', imitating Black and Asian styles in clothing, piercings, gestures (like fist-bumps or high-fives), language, and activities like street dance, rap, or hip-hop.
• This illustrates how ethnicity can influence identities beyond one's own group, leading to cultural mixing.