Digital communication and cultural conflict

Howard's study of online Christian fundamentalism

Howard's research, titled 'Digital Jesus', examines how the internet has facilitated the growth of Christian fundamentalist groups in the USA. The study found that the internet created a 'virtual church', an online network that lacked a physical leader or place of worship, distinguishing it from traditional religious practices.

Use by Islamist fundamentalist groups

Groups like the Taliban, Al-Qaeda, and ISIS (also known as Daesh) have exploited digital tools for their agendas. These organisations use digital communication to recruit jihadists and to spread ideological messages.

Digital communication and positive social change

Kirkpatrick's analysis of digital mobilisation

Kirkpatrick's work highlights how digital communication drives social change by uniting people in online movements.

Key mechanisms:

• It allows instantaneous communication.
• Forms online social movements.
• Provides anonymity for sharing sensitive information (like human rights abuses).
• Gives a voice to the oppressed, especially under repressive governments.

These features provide a powerful means for protests to be heard, particularly in contexts where governments restrict free speech.

The Facebook effect in Colombia

Kirkpatrick documented a specific case where social media led to widespread action. A Facebook site mobilised 10 million people for street demonstrations, which pressured an armed revolutionary movement to enter into peace negotiations with the Colombian government.

Other examples of digital coordination

• Occupy protests (2011) - Social media coordinated demonstrations in cities like London and New York against economic inequality, highlighting corporate and governmental power imbalances.
• WikiLeaks - This website publishes leaked documents exposing misconduct by states and corporations, challenging authority and promoting transparency.

Debates on digital media's role in social upheavals

The Arab Spring and social media

Proponents argue that platforms like Facebook, Twitter/X, and YouTube were instrumental in removing dictators in Tunisia and Egypt.

Method of use in Egypt:

• Facebook scheduled protests.
• Twitter/X coordinated logistics.
• YouTube documented authority responses, helping people overcome fear and mobilise.

Kassim argues that global networks empowered Arab citizens to challenge totalitarian regimes, leading to street actions and political change.

Criticisms of social media's influence

Critics contend that deeper factors drove the changes, with digital media playing a supporting rather than causal role.

Key criticisms:

• Curran's argument - The Arab Spring stemmed from deep-seated economic, political, and religious factors.
• Wilson and Dunn's findings - Their research indicated that face-to-face interactions, television, and print media were more important than social media for mobilising people.
• Curran's conclusion - Social media played a role in the build-up of dissent and protest coordination, but it did not cause the uprisings; it merely facilitated them alongside other traditional media.