Core ideas of interactionist explanations

Interactionist explanations for deviant subcultures argue that deviance is socially constructed by those who have the power to apply labels.

Becker's theory on the social construction of deviance

Howard Becker (1963) argues that the social construction of deviance requires two activities:

Requirements for social construction of deviance

• Behaviour by less powerful groups - Individuals or groups with limited power, such as young people, engage in certain actions.
• Negative response and labelling by powerful groups - Those with more authority, like parents, teachers, or police officers, react negatively and define the behaviour as deviant.

According to Becker, a deviant is simply someone who has been successfully labelled as such. Deviant behaviour, therefore, is whatever powerful groups decide to call it.

Cicourel's study of police labelling and class differences

Cicourel's research (1968)

Cicourel's observation of American police officers found that officers were more likely to stereotype working-class youth as delinquent and apply harsh labels. In contrast, they often negotiated with middle-class youth and their parents, avoiding formal charges. Consequently, middle-class young people were less likely to be officially labelled as delinquent and charged.

Evidence of racial profiling in policing

It is argued that racial profiling or labelling underpins police officers' decisions to stop young Black and Asian people. Official police stop and search data from 2011 in the UK showed that young African-Caribbean men were eight times more likely to be stopped and searched than young white people, while young Asian people were twice as likely.

Evaluation of interactionist explanations

Limitations and criticisms

• Overemphasis on labelling - Critics argue that interactionists appear to blame police and other authorities for youth deviance, overlooking the initial reasons why young people engage in deviant acts before any labelling occurs.
• Failure to explain origins - The approach does not adequately address why certain behaviours happen in the first place, focusing instead on reactions.