The impact of industrialisation on family structure

Industrialisation, beginning in the UK during the 18th century, marked a significant shift in how families were structured and functioned. This process involved a move from home-based production to mechanised work in factories, leading to the growth of urban areas and changing the dynamics of family life.

Key changes due to industrialisation

• Shift from extended to nuclear families:
  • In pre-industrial society, extended families, comprising multiple generations living and working together, were common, producing goods and crops at home or on farms.
  • With industrialisation, nuclear families, consisting of just parents and their children, became more dominant as individuals left home to work in factories in cities.
• Separation of home and work:
  • Industrial society separated the spheres of home and work.
  • Family members, particularly men, began travelling to urban factories for wages, altering the traditional family unit that combined living and working spaces.
• Types of societies:
  • Pre-industrial society focused on agriculture with work centred around home, farm, village, and market.
  • Industrial society shifted focus to factories and the production of goods in urban settings.

Functionalist views on family roles and functions

Functionalist sociologists, like Talcott Parsons (1951), argue that family structures adapted to meet the needs of industrial society. They believe the nuclear family became more suitable due to its functionality in a changing social landscape.

Changes in family functions

• Reduction of family roles - In pre-industrial society, families handled many functions such as education, healthcare, and policing. In industrial society, these responsibilities were largely taken over by the state, allowing families to focus on specific roles.
• Focus on socialisation - The nuclear family became specialised in socialising children, teaching them the roles, values, and norms necessary for industrial society.
• Geographical mobility - Parsons described the nuclear family as 'isolated', meaning it had fewer ties to local kinship or economic systems. This isolation allowed families to relocate easily to areas with employment opportunities.

Evolution of roles and status

• From ascribed to achieved status:
  • In pre-industrial times, an individual's status was ascribed, determined by family background at birth.
  • In industrial society, status became achieved through personal success outside the family, promoting social mobility.
• Specialised gender roles:
  • Parsons suggested that within the nuclear family, men took on instrumental roles (practical and planning), while women adopted expressive roles (emotional support).
  • Functionalists argue these roles are effective for societal needs, though this view is contested by feminists and conflict theorists who see them as rooted in ideology and power dynamics.

Stages of family development in British society

British sociologists Willmott and Young (1960, 1973) conducted studies in London and Essex, tracing the evolution of family structures in Britain. Their research outlined distinct stages through which families progressed in response to societal changes.

Three stages of family development

1. Pre-industrial - Families operated as economic production units, with work and home life intertwined. Multiple generations collaborated in producing goods.
2. Early industrial - The extended family structure weakened as men left home for factory work. Women maintained strong extended kinship networks at home.
3. Privatised nuclear - Known as the 'symmetrical family', this stage focused on consumption rather than production. Nuclear families prioritised personal relationships and lifestyle, with husbands and wives sharing joint roles.

Influences on the symmetrical family

• Economic contributions - Both partners often worked, either full-time or part-time, making their financial contributions equally significant.
• Shift in economic sectors - Helen Wilkinson (1994) noted a move from male-dominated industrial sectors to female-dominated service sectors, increasing women's participation in the workforce.
• Changing attitudes - Wilkinson described a 'genderquake' in the early 1990s, where women aged 16 to 35 prioritised work and education over having children.
• Economic influence of women - Employment gave women greater economic power within families, challenging traditional gender roles.
• Social attitudes survey (2012) - A survey revealed that 41% of women and 36% of men considered the ideal family structure for those with dependent children to be men working full-time and women part-time, showing a preference over the sole male breadwinner model.

Criticisms of functionalist perspectives on family change

While functionalist views suggest family structures naturally evolve to suit societal needs, other sociologists challenge these ideas, highlighting complexities and negative aspects overlooked by functionalists.

Historical evidence and alternative views

• Pre-industrial nuclear families - Peter Laslett (1972) argued, based on parish records, that nuclear families were common in Britain even before industrialisation, contradicting the functionalist narrative of a shift from extended to nuclear families.
• Extended families in industrial society - Laslett and Anderson (1971), using 1851 census data, found that extended families remained significant during industrialisation, as people often lived with relatives when moving to cities for work.
• Idealisation of history - Functionalists are criticised for presenting an overly positive view of history and assuming the nuclear family is superior, ignoring the variety of family forms that existed in the past.

Critiques of Willmott and Young's stages

• March of progress assumption - Willmott and Young are described as 'march of progress' theorists, criticised for assuming family life has continuously improved with modernisation.
• Neglect of negative aspects - Their work overlooks issues within modern nuclear families, such as domestic violence, child abuse, and inadequate care for older or vulnerable individuals.
• Feminist research disputes the notion of equal roles in the 'symmetrical family', arguing that true equality between partners is often absent.

The influence of social policy on family structure

Governments in the UK have historically used social policy to shape family life and structure, reflecting different political ideologies and societal priorities over time.

Social policy and state control

• Areas of influence - Social policies cover aspects like divorce, benefits systems, education reforms, adoption, fostering, and employment, all impacting family dynamics.
• State control perspective - Donzelot (1977) suggested that social policy can be a tool for state control over families, with professionals like healthcare visitors using their expertise to influence family behaviour.

Evolution of social policy post-World War II

1945-1979 interventionist approach:

• Post-war Labour governments established the Welfare State in 1948.
• This supported families through universal benefits, public housing, family allowances, and free healthcare, funded by national insurance contributions.

1979 Conservative reforms:

• Under Margaret Thatcher, influenced by New Right ideology, the Conservatives promoted nuclear families as society's cornerstone while reducing state intervention.
• Benefits were cut, taxes lowered, and means testing introduced to target aid to those in genuine need.
• Policies encouraged mothers to stay at home via tax allowances and pushed families to care for older relatives.

Legislation for traditional families:

• The Conservatives introduced the Child Support Agency (1993) to ensure absent parents contributed financially to their children, and the Children Act (1989) defined children's rights.
• A proposed mandatory one-year cooling-off period for divorce was considered but not implemented.

New Labour's Third Way (1997 onwards):

• Led by Tony Blair, New Labour sought a middle ground between left and right-wing politics.
• Their 1998 paper 'Supporting Families' endorsed marriage but recognised family diversity.
• Policies included civil partnerships for gay couples (2005), adoption rights for cohabiting couples, and adoption of some New Right ideas like cutting lone-parent benefits.

Coalition and Conservative austerity (2010 onwards):

• The 2010 Coalition Government of Conservatives and Liberal Democrats under David Cameron promoted marriage for family stability, removing the 'couples penalty' in benefits.
• Same-sex marriage was legalised in 2014, though not universally supported within the Conservative Party.
• Post-2008 financial crisis austerity measures capped housing benefits at £500 per week for couples and single parents in 2013.
• The 2015 Conservative Government continued austerity, limiting child benefit increases to the first two children to encourage 'behavioural change' as stated by Iain Duncan Smith.