4.4 - Socialisation: Theories
Functionalist perspectives on socialisation and social control
Functionalists view socialisation as a vital mechanism for maintaining order and stability in society. They believe it instils shared norms and values, ensuring individuals conform to societal expectations.
Key ideas in functionalist theory on socialisation
- Social control through constraint - Socialisation limits individual behaviour by internalising societal norms, a concept termed 'constraint' by Durkheim. Without this, individuals might act solely on personal desires.
- Creation of consensus - Socialisation fosters agreement on values and norms across society.
- Conformity and sanctions - Adhering to societal expectations brings rewards, while deviating from them results in punishments, known as sanctions. Deviant behaviour is that which does not align with societal norms.
- Role of the nuclear family - Parsons (1951) highlights the family as central to primary socialisation, shaping a child's personality and sense of belonging. Children often emulate the same-sex parent, influencing their behaviour.
- Agents of secondary socialisation - Functionalists identify education and religion as key agents:
- Education - Durkheim saw schools as a bridge between family and society. Parsons (1961) noted that education instils values like fair competition and honesty, preparing children for workplace roles.
- Religion - By giving sacred status to certain values, religion reinforces codes of behaviour, encouraging conformity.
Marxist views on socialisation and class exploitation
Marxists argue that socialisation serves the interests of the ruling class in a capitalist system, perpetuating inequality by conditioning the working class to accept their exploitation.
Central themes in Marxist theory on socialisation
- Indoctrination for oppression - Institutions like family, education, and religion socialise the working class into accepting their subordinate position.
- Education and conformity - While agreeing with functionalists on education promoting conformity, Marxists believe it instils values such as obedience and acceptance of failure, which benefit the ruling class by suppressing aspiration.
- Religion as a distraction - Religion socialises the working class to endure poverty by promising rewards in an afterlife, diverting attention from their current social inferiority.
- Neo-Marxist perspective - Neo-Marxists acknowledge that indoctrination is not always effective, as individuals can resist and rebel against such socialisation processes.
Feminist critiques of socialisation and patriarchal indoctrination
Feminists contend that socialisation reinforces patriarchal structures, embedding gender inequalities through societal expectations and roles.
Core arguments in feminist theory on socialisation
- Patriarchal ideals in family - Oakley (1982) suggests that parents socialise children into gender-specific behaviours by praising actions aligned with traditional roles, such as guiding them towards gender-stereotyped toys.
- Liberal feminist approach - This perspective advocates for changing socialisation practices to challenge gender stereotypes, aiming to foster greater equality in opportunities between men and women.
- Radical feminist stance - Radical feminists argue that patriarchal values are deeply ingrained in society, necessitating fundamental structural changes to overcome such indoctrination rather than mere attitude shifts.
Interactionist ideas on socialisation as a two-way process
Interactionists propose that socialisation is not a passive absorption of norms but an active, mutual interaction between individuals and their environments.
Key stages and concepts in interactionist socialisation
- Developmental stages (Handel, 2006) - Socialisation in childhood progresses through three phases:
- Early communication - Children learn to interact but lack awareness of how others perceive them or the impact of their actions.
- Empathy development - Children begin to understand others' feelings, enhancing their social interactions.
- Sense of self - Children develop self-awareness, viewing themselves through others' perspectives and adjusting behaviour accordingly.
- Role of play (Mead, 1935) - Play is crucial for developing a sense of self, as children learn to understand others' viewpoints and realise they can influence outcomes through their actions.
- Rebellion and social control - While acknowledging that institutions promote shared norms, Mead notes that social control depends on how much individuals adopt others' attitudes, allowing room for rebellion.
- Influence of peer groups - Peer interactions can lead to conformity to group norms or rebellion against societal rules, affecting both children and adults in social and work settings.
- Parental freedom - Interactionists argue parents have flexibility in how they socialise children, not always adhering to fixed societal norms.
- Criticisms of interactionist theory - Some sociologists critique this approach for focusing too much on individual interactions and neglecting broader social factors like class, gender, ethnicity, and institutional influences.
Postmodernist arguments on resisting socialisation
Postmodernists emphasise individual choice in modern society, suggesting that people can resist traditional socialisation due to the diversity of values and knowledge available.
Main points in postmodernist views on socialisation
- Diversity of knowledge (Lyotard, 1979) - Postmodern society offers multiple, competing versions of truth and knowledge, allowing individuals to choose which values to adopt.
- Personal agency - Even the least powerful individuals have some control over the information they encounter, as no single institution dominates knowledge distribution.
- Weakening of secondary socialisation - The variety of cultural norms and values reduces the influence of traditional agents like education and religion, making it easier for individuals to resist conventional socialisation patterns.
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