2.5 - Educational Achievement & Inequality: Gender
Historical shifts in gender achievement in education
For much of history in the UK, education for females was considered less important, leading to boys consistently outperforming girls in academic settings. However, since the 1980s, a significant reversal has occurred, with girls now surpassing boys across various educational stages.
Key trends in gender achievement
- Primary school performance - Girls achieve higher results in National Curriculum tests at this level.
- GCSE success - Girls outperform boys in almost every subject at GCSE.
- A-level attainment - Girls are more likely to pass their A-level examinations.
- Higher education access - A greater number of women than men progress to university in the UK.
Factors inside school contributing to female success
Several changes within the educational system have contributed to the improved performance of girls over recent decades.
School-based influences on female achievement
- Feminisation of teaching - As noted by Mitsos and Browne (1998), the teaching profession, particularly in primary schools, has become predominantly female, providing girls with positive role models.
- Updated resources - Textbooks and teaching materials have been revised to avoid stereotyping girls into passive roles.
- Curriculum changes - The introduction of the National Curriculum compelled girls to study traditionally male-dominated subjects like science, supported by initiatives such as WISE (Women in Science and Engineering) and GIST (Girls into Science and Technology).
- Teacher interaction - Swann and Graddol (1993) highlight that teachers spend more time with girls on academic support, whereas time with boys often focuses on managing behaviour.
- Negative labelling of boys - Jackson (1998) suggests that schools often label boys negatively, associating them with disruptive behaviour and low achievement, which can harm the school's reputation and league table rankings, potentially becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Challenges females still face in education
Despite their academic progress, girls continue to encounter significant obstacles within the educational system, which can undermine their achievements.
Persistent issues for female students
- Masked problems - Archer (2006) argues that the focus on boys' underachievement overshadows ongoing difficulties faced by girls.
- Negative stereotypes for high achievers - High-achieving Asian and Chinese girls are often labelled by teachers as robotic and lacking independent thought.
- Racial and class-based labelling - Black working-class girls are frequently stereotyped as loud and aggressive, impacting their educational experience.
- Fragile success - Archer concludes that the academic success of girls remains precarious and fraught with challenges.
External factors influencing female achievement
Beyond the school environment, broader societal changes have played a crucial role in enhancing female performance in education by reshaping attitudes and opportunities.
Societal influences on female success
- Socialisation patterns - Girls are often socialised to be quiet, obedient, and engaged in reading, traits that align well with classroom expectations.
- Legislative changes - Laws such as the Equal Pay Act (1970), which prohibits different wages for the same work based on gender, and the Sex Discrimination Act (1975), which bans gender-based discrimination by employers, have fostered greater equality and shifted societal values reflected in schools.
- Changing aspirations - Sue Sharpe (1994) found that girls now prioritise careers and qualifications, inspired by working women as role models and a desire for financial independence.
- Feminist impact - The feminist movement has raised awareness of inequality, reducing negative stereotyping and challenging patriarchal structures.
- Labour market evolution - Since the 1970s, the growth of the service sector (e.g., healthcare, retail), traditionally female-dominated, and the decline of primary industries (e.g., mining, farming), traditionally male-dominated, have opened new opportunities for women.
- Family structure changes - Women are marrying and having children later, allowing more time to focus on careers, while more equal household roles enable greater participation in the workforce.
Reasons for male underachievement
While girls have advanced academically, boys are increasingly falling behind due to a combination of social, cultural, and educational factors that impact their engagement with learning.
Causes of boys' underperformance
- Identity crisis - Some sociologists suggest that the rise of female independence, the decline of the traditional male breadwinner role, and increasing male unemployment may lead boys to question the value of education, potentially fostering anti-school attitudes.
- Teacher expectations - Interpretivist perspectives indicate that teachers often have lower expectations of boys, which can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy of poor behaviour and academic performance, compounded by higher rates of exclusion.
- Lack of male role models - The feminisation of teaching means fewer male teachers are present, especially in primary education, limiting positive male role models for boys.
- Perception of reading - Reading is often viewed as a 'girly' activity, and boys who avoid it may miss out on developing essential communication skills.
The role of subcultures in gender and achievement
Subcultures within schools can significantly influence how students engage with education, often emerging as a response to labelling or streaming practices, and can vary by gender and class.
Impact of subcultures on educational outcomes
- Anti-school attitudes - Willis (1970s) studied a group of working-class boys, later termed 'Willis's lads', who formed an anti-school subculture, rejecting education and valuing humour over academic success as a way to cope with underachievement.
- Diverse male subcultures - Mac an Ghaill (1994) notes the complexity of subcultures, with some boys joining 'macho lad' groups due to a crisis of masculinity, while others align with pro-school subcultures that value academic success.
- Resistance to labelling - Fuller (1980) observed African-Caribbean girls in London forming a subculture focused on hard work to counter negative stereotypes and prove their worth academically.
Influences on gender and subject choice
Gender differences in subject selection at A-level persist, with distinct patterns reflecting societal expectations and stereotypes that guide students' decisions.
Factors affecting subject preferences
- Gender socialisation - Concepts of femininity and masculinity shape expectations, leading girls to opt for essay-based subjects like English and religious studies, while boys gravitate towards technical subjects like maths and physics.
- Perception of science - Kelly (1987) found that science is often seen as a masculine domain, with boys dominating classroom interactions in these subjects.
- Parental influence - Parents may encourage children to pursue subjects deemed 'normal' for their gender, reinforcing traditional social norms.
- Teacher role models - The gender of teachers can impact subject choice; for instance, the predominance of male physics teachers provides more male role models, potentially influencing boys to choose this subject over girls.
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