Statistical differences in crime rates between men and women

Crime statistics reveal a significant disparity between men and women in terms of convictions and imprisonment.

Key statistics on gender and crime

• Prison population - In England and Wales (2010-11 data), women accounted for just 5% of the total prison population.
• Arrests and court appearances - During the same period, 16% of those arrested and 24% of defendants in court were women.
• Sentencing outcomes - Women found guilty were more likely to receive fines rather than custodial sentences compared to men. When imprisoned, women typically received shorter sentences.
• Overall trends - Men are more frequently suspected, charged, and convicted of almost all types of crime, a pattern consistent across factors like age, social class, ethnicity, and geographical region.

Sociological explanations for gender differences in crime

Several sociological theories attempt to explain why men appear to commit more crime than women.

Cultural and lifestyle influences

• Subcultural theories - Scholars like Miller (1962) and Merton (1968) suggest that the cultural norms and lifestyles associated with young men often promote criminal behaviour, particularly as most crime is committed by younger individuals.
• Opportunity structures - Les Marsh (1986) argues that men commit more crime due to greater opportunities. For instance, men are more likely to hold powerful corporate positions where white-collar crime can occur, whereas women have fewer such opportunities.
• Equal opportunity in specific crimes - Marsh also notes that in areas where women have similar opportunities to men, such as shoplifting, their likelihood of offending appears comparable.

The chivalry thesis and its impact on crime statistics

The chivalry thesis offers a perspective on how societal attitudes towards gender influence the treatment of women within the criminal justice system, potentially skewing official crime statistics.

Core ideas of the chivalry thesis

• Protective socialisation - Sociologists like Pollak (1950) propose that men are socialised to be protective towards women, a concept known as chivalry.
• Leniency in the justice system - With a predominantly male police force and criminal justice system, this chivalrous attitude often results in women being less likely to be arrested or treated more leniently when they are.
• Underestimation of female crime - This leniency can lead to an underrepresentation of female crime in official data, while simultaneously acting as a form of bias against male offenders.
• Supporting evidence - Campbell (1981) conducted a self-report survey that revealed a higher incidence of female crime than official figures suggest, though it included more minor offences.
• Criticisms of the thesis - Some argue that women's crimes are often less severe, such as non-violent offences, which may explain lighter punishments. Additionally, women are more likely to express remorse, further contributing to lenient treatment.

Sex-role theory and its influence on criminal behaviour

Sex-role theory explores how societal expectations and upbringing based on gender roles can shape tendencies towards criminal behaviour.

Gender socialisation and crime

• Female conformity - Girls are often raised to be passive and conformist, reducing their likelihood of engaging in criminal activities.
• Male aggression - Boys, on the other hand, are socialised to be 'tough' and 'manly', which, according to feminist scholar Frances Heidensohn (1986), can lead to greater aggression and a higher propensity for violent crime.
• Deviance perception - Heidensohn also highlights that criminal behaviour in women is viewed as highly deviant compared to men, for whom such actions might be seen as more socially acceptable.
• Court treatment based on roles - Pat Carlen (1997) found that courts treat women differently depending on adherence to traditional gender roles. Women seen as good mothers were less likely to be imprisoned compared to those without children or with children in care, indicating harsher penalties for non-conformity to societal ideals.

Feminist perspectives on social control and the liberation thesis

Feminist sociologists provide additional explanations for gender disparities in crime, focusing on systemic control mechanisms and evolving societal structures that influence female offending.

Social control and female crime

• Family and societal oversight - Abbott and Wallace (1990) argue that young women face stricter supervision from family and less freedom outside the home, limiting their opportunities to commit crime.
• Public behaviour expectations - Women are often encouraged to dress and act 'respectably' to avoid societal judgement, with additional control exerted in male-dominated workplaces.
• Patriarchal barriers - Heidensohn (2002) agrees with Marsh that women's limited access to certain opportunities, due to a male-dominated society, restricts their involvement in crimes like financial fraud. Crimes women do commit often relate to domestic roles, such as shoplifting.

The liberation thesis and changing crime patterns

• Increased female crime - Freda Adler (1975) introduced the liberation thesis, suggesting that as women gain more freedom and society becomes less patriarchal, female crime rates rise.
• Shift in crime types - This liberation leads to women engaging in traditionally male-dominated crimes, including violence and armed robbery.
• Supporting trends - Evidence includes a noted increase in female crime rates and the emergence of violent girl gangs. Westwood (1999) adds that changing female identities, adopting more typically male behaviours, may contribute to this trend.
• Criticisms of the thesis - Critics point out that the rise in female crime predates significant liberation movements. Additionally, working-class women, who commit a large proportion of female crimes, often benefit least from societal changes towards gender equality.
• Crime as liberation - Carlen (1988) interviewed working-class women with criminal records, finding that many made a rational choice to commit crime due to poverty and feelings of powerlessness within society and family structures, viewing crime as a means to change their circumstances.