The role of advertising in shaping children's perceptions

Advertising is a powerful force that infiltrates daily life through various media such as television, the internet, billboards, and print. It is strategically designed to capture the attention of specific audiences, including children, who are seen as a distinct and profitable group. By using creative methods, adverts not only promote products but also shape desires and reinforce societal norms, often leveraging aspects like gender identity to build connections with young consumers.

Mechanisms of influence in advertising

• Strategic placement - Adverts are placed in locations and media where children are likely to encounter them, maximising exposure.
• Creative techniques - Advertisers use engaging visuals and narratives to create a longing for products among young viewers.
• Ideological carriers - Beyond selling items, adverts often embed dominant cultural beliefs, subtly influencing how children perceive the world.
• Targeted segmentation - Since the mid-20th century, children have been identified as a unique audience segment, with content tailored to their interests and identities.
• Image-based influence - Children are particularly susceptible to visual and symbolic messages, which often tie products to gender roles or social status.

Television's influence on child development and gender socialisation

Television advertising plays a significant role in the development of children, acting as a tool for both enculturation and socialisation. Through commercials, children learn about consumer culture and absorb messages about societal norms, including gender roles, which can shape their behaviours and expectations from an early age.

How television adverts impact children

• Consumer culture training - Adverts teach children that products can enhance their lifestyle, bring enjoyment, or elevate their social standing.
• Unique identity portrayal - Children are often depicted as independent and playful consumers, distinct from adults, which appeals to their sense of individuality.
• Behavioural and linguistic models - Commercials provide examples of how to act, speak, and interact, which children may mimic in real life or during play.
• Transfer of content - Children often integrate themes and messages from adverts into their games and social interactions, reinforcing learned concepts.
• Gender learning - Adverts frequently align with traditional gender categories, contributing to the socialisation of boys and girls into stereotypical roles.

Key findings from Johnson and Young (2002) on gendered voices in adverts

Johnson and Young conducted a detailed study in 2002 to explore how gender is represented through voices and language in children's television advertising. Their research, carried out between 1996 and 1999, involved content analysis of commercials aired during cartoon programmes on various networks, providing insights into the pervasive gender stereotypes in media targeted at young audiences.

Method of Johnson and Young's research

• Sample selection - Analysed 478 commercials from cartoon programmes on commercial networks, regional stations, and Nickelodeon, recorded in fall 1996, 1997, and 1999.
• Programme data - Included 15 half-hour programmes in 1996 and 1997, and 24 in 1999, with an average of 8.5 commercials per programme.
• Analytical focus - Examined four key aspects of gendered voice: voice-overs, verb types, speaking turns for boys and girls, and the use of "power" terminology.
• Product categorisation - Divided adverts into five categories: food items, toys, educational or public service announcements, recreational facilities, and video or movie promotions.
• Toy advert breakdown - Classified toy commercials (188 in total) into boy-targeted, girl-targeted, and gender-neutral or mixed-gender targeted.

Results of the study

• Gender targeting imbalance - Boy-oriented adverts made up 55.7% of the sample, compared to 32.1% for girl-oriented, with only 12.2% targeting both genders.
• Toy type differences - Boys' toys were predominantly action figures (38% of boy-oriented toys), while girls' toys were mostly posable figures or dolls (43% of girl-oriented toys).
• Voice-over patterns - Male voice-overs were used in 100% of boy-oriented and mixed-gender adverts, while female voice-overs appeared in 89% of girl-oriented adverts, often with exaggerated gender stylisation (80% for boys, 87% for girls).
• Verb usage disparities - Boy-oriented adverts featured more competition/destruction verbs (118 vs. 7 in girl-oriented) and agency/control verbs (107 vs. 22), while girl-oriented adverts used more feeling/nurturing verbs (64 vs. 0) and limited activity verbs (275 vs. 148).
• Dialogue differences - Only 26% of boy-oriented adverts included speaking lines compared to 55% of girl-oriented adverts, indicating girls are shown talking more.
• Power terminology - 21% of boy-oriented adverts used terms like "power" or "powerful," while the term appeared only once in girl-oriented adverts.

Conclusions from the research

• Polarised gender models - Television adverts present highly distinct gender portrayals, reinforcing traditional stereotypes.
• Verbal reinforcement - The language and imagery used in adverts strengthen conventional gender roles, with boys associated with action and power, and girls with nurturing and passivity.
• Impact on children - These verbal and visual models provide children with stereotypical frameworks for understanding gender, influencing their play and social interactions.

Gender representation in children's television advertising

Beyond Johnson and Young's work, other research has highlighted the consistent gender stereotyping in children's media and advertising. These studies reveal how pervasive and ingrained such portrayals are, contributing to the socialisation of young viewers into traditional roles.

Evidence of gender stereotyping in media

• Thompson and Zerbinos (1995) - Analysed 175 episodes from 41 cartoon programmes and found that male leads outnumbered female leads significantly (99% to 55%), with characters often depicted in gender-stereotypical roles.
• Welch et al. (1979) - Observed that in mixed-gender commercials, girls spoke less than boys, but in girl-targeted adverts, they spoke more, reinforcing the idea that girls are more verbal while boys are more active.
• Advertising volume - Research by Kunkel and Gantz (1992) showed that children's programming includes between 10 and 13 minutes of advertising per hour, equating to around 22 to 26 adverts, each typically lasting 30 seconds.

Implications of gender stereotyping in advertising content

The consistent portrayal of gender stereotypes in children's advertising has broader implications for how young viewers perceive themselves and others. These messages can shape attitudes, behaviours, and expectations in ways that extend beyond childhood.

Consequences of gendered advertising

• Reinforcement of traditional roles - By associating boys with power, action, and competition, and girls with nurturing, passivity, and appearance, adverts perpetuate outdated gender norms.
• Influence on play and identity - Toy types and marketing strategies encourage gender-specific play, limiting children's exploration of diverse interests or roles.
• Long-term social impact - Repeated exposure to polarised gender models can affect how children form relationships and view their potential, potentially restricting personal and career aspirations.
• Need for critical awareness - Understanding the ideological content in adverts can help mitigate their influence, encouraging more balanced perceptions of gender among young audiences.