Methods for identifying suspects through visual techniques

Various visual identification methods are employed by law enforcement to gather evidence from witnesses and suspects.

Common visual identification techniques

• Identity parades - Also known as line-ups, this method involves presenting a group of individuals, including the suspect, to a witness for identification.
• Identikits (photo-fits) - These are composite images created based on witness descriptions.
• FACES software - A digital tool that allows witnesses to build a suspect's face by selecting from a database of facial features.
• E-fits (electronic facial identification technique) - An advanced digital method where witnesses work with software to create a detailed facial image of the suspect.
• SketchCop - A specialised software or manual sketching technique used by forensic artists to create suspect images based on witness input.

Distinction between interviews and interrogations in evidence collection

Understanding the difference between interviews and interrogations is crucial in the context of evidence collection. These two approaches serve distinct purposes and are conducted under different conditions within the criminal justice system.

Key differences between interviews and interrogations

• Purpose - Interviews gather information, often from witnesses or victims, in a non-accusatory manner. Interrogations obtain confessions or specific details, typically from suspects, often with a more confrontational approach.
• Tone - Interviews are conversational and cooperative, aiming to build rapport and trust. Interrogations are more intense and accusatory, focusing on breaking down resistance.
• Setting - Interviews are usually informal, conducted in a neutral or comfortable environment. Interrogations are often formal, conducted in a controlled environment like a police station.
• Legal considerations - Interviews have less focus on coercion and prioritise voluntary participation. Interrogations may involve psychological pressure, with strict legal guidelines to prevent coercion.

The Reid technique and its nine steps of interrogation

The Reid technique is a widely used method for interrogating suspects with the primary goal of obtaining confessions. Developed in the mid-20th century, it employs psychological strategies to encourage suspects to reveal information.

Nine steps of the Reid technique

1. Direct confrontation - The interrogator begins by directly accusing the suspect of involvement in the crime, presenting the accusation as a fact.
2. Theme development - The interrogator offers justifications or excuses for the crime, suggesting it was understandable or morally acceptable under certain circumstances, to reduce the suspect's resistance.
3. Handling denials - When the suspect denies involvement, the interrogator interrupts or dismisses these denials, preventing the suspect from establishing a pattern of denial.
4. Overcoming objections - If the suspect provides reasons why they couldn't have committed the crime, the interrogator counters these objections, turning them into admissions of involvement.
5. Procuring the suspect's attention - The interrogator maintains close physical proximity and uses empathetic gestures to keep the suspect engaged and reduce psychological withdrawal.
6. Handling the suspect's passive mood - When the suspect becomes quieter or shows signs of defeat, the interrogator capitalises on this by offering sympathy and understanding to encourage a confession.
7. Presenting an alternative question - The interrogator poses a choice between two explanations for the crime, one more socially acceptable than the other, pushing the suspect to admit guilt by choosing the less damaging option.
8. Having the suspect orally relate details - Once a confession is obtained, the suspect is encouraged to provide a detailed verbal account of the crime, reinforcing their admission.
9. Converting an oral confession to written - Finally, the confession is documented in writing or recorded, ensuring it is legally admissible as evidence.

The PEACE model as an alternative interviewing approach

The PEACE model offers a non-confrontational alternative to traditional interrogation methods like the Reid technique. Developed in the United Kingdom, it prioritises ethical interviewing practices and focuses on gathering accurate information rather than securing confessions.

Key components of the PEACE model

• Preparation and planning - Before the interview, investigators gather background information, define objectives, and prepare questions to ensure a structured approach.
• Engage and explain - The interviewer builds rapport with the interviewee, explains the purpose of the interview, and outlines the process to create a comfortable environment.
• Account, clarification, and challenge - The interviewee is encouraged to provide their version of events in detail. The interviewer then seeks clarification on inconsistencies and challenges any discrepancies in a non-accusatory manner.
• Closure - The interview is concluded by summarising the key points discussed, ensuring the interviewee understands what has been covered, and explaining the next steps.
• Evaluation - After the interview, the investigator reflects on the information obtained, assesses its reliability, and determines how it contributes to the investigation.

Types of interviews and retrieval techniques in cognitive interviews

Different types of interviews are used depending on the context, with cognitive interviews employing specific techniques to enhance memory recall.

Types of police interviews

• Standard interview - A basic, straightforward questioning method often used for initial information gathering.
• Cognitive interview (CI) - A method designed to improve witness recall by using psychological principles to access memory more effectively.
• Structured interview (SI) - A formal approach with pre-set questions to ensure consistency.
• Enhanced cognitive interview (ECI) - An advanced version of the cognitive interview, incorporating additional strategies to build rapport and improve recall accuracy.

Retrieval techniques in cognitive interviews

• Context reinstatement - Witnesses are encouraged to mentally recreate the environment and emotional state they were in during the event to trigger associated memories.
• In-depth reporting - Witnesses are asked to provide as much detail as possible about the event, even seemingly trivial information, to uncover hidden memories.
• Narrative re-ordering - Witnesses recount the event in a different sequence (e.g., starting from the end or middle) to access memories from a fresh perspective.
• Reporting from different perspectives - Witnesses describe the event as if they were another person present, helping to unlock additional details or viewpoints.

Phases of the enhanced cognitive interview

The enhanced cognitive interview (ECI) builds on the original cognitive interview by incorporating structured phases to maximise memory retrieval and ensure a supportive environment for the witness.

Nine phases of the enhanced cognitive interview

1. Greet and personalise the interview - The interviewer welcomes the witness, uses their name, and establishes a friendly tone to build trust and rapport.
2. Explain the aims of the interview - The purpose and process are clearly outlined, ensuring the witness understands the goal is to gather accurate information, not to accuse or pressure them.
3. Initiate a free report - The witness is encouraged to provide an uninterrupted account of the event in their own words, allowing for a natural flow of memories.
4. Compatible questioning - Questions are tailored to the witness's responses, using open-ended prompts to avoid leading or influencing their account.
5. Varied and extensive retrieval - Multiple memory-enhancing techniques (like context reinstatement or narrative re-ordering) are used to access different aspects of the event.
6. Investigatively important questions - Specific, targeted questions are asked to clarify key details relevant to the investigation, ensuring critical information is captured.
7. Summary - The interviewer recaps the main points of the witness's account, confirming accuracy and allowing the witness to correct or add details.
8. Closure - The interview ends on a positive note, with thanks to the witness and an explanation of what happens next in the process.
9. Evaluation - Post-interview, the investigator reviews the information for reliability, identifies gaps, and plans further steps in the investigation.

Additional police interview strategies

• Forensic hypnosis - Occasionally used to help witnesses recall repressed or forgotten details by placing them in a relaxed, trance-like state.