Main assumptions of the social approach

The social approach in psychology focuses on how people interact within groups and environments. This perspective assumes that individual thoughts, feelings, and actions do not occur in isolation but are shaped by external social factors.

Key assumptions

• Influence of social contexts - Behaviour (observable actions), cognitions (thought processes), and emotions (feelings) are affected by social environments, groups, and situations.
• Presence of others - These aspects of human experience are also influenced by the actual, implied, or imagined presence of other people.

Psychology being investigated in Milgram's study

Obedience refers to a form of social influence where a person follows a direct order from an authority figure. According to Milgram, people have a strong tendency to be obedient, and a system of obedience is needed for people living in a community. Milgram proposed various explanations for why people obey others.

Background to Milgram's study

Milgram's research was inspired by historical events, particularly the atrocities during World War II (1939-1945). He noted that such large-scale harm required widespread obedience to orders.

He questioned the 'Germans are different' hypothesis, which attributes obedience to dispositional factors (personal characteristics). Milgram believed this might not be unique and expected low obedience in 1960s America. Surveys of Yale students and colleagues predicted almost no one would administer electric shocks in an extreme scenario, setting the stage for his experiment to test these ideas.

Aim of Milgram's study

The primary aim was to investigate the level of obedience when the authority figure's command requires destructive behaviour.

Methodology of Milgram's study

Milgram used a laboratory-based method to simulate obedience under pressure. This allowed for careful control and observation of behaviour.

Research method and setting

The study was a controlled, covert, non-participant observation conducted in a laboratory setting.

Data collection techniques

• Observation - Behaviour was observed using a one-way mirror, recording the participant's level of obedience (the maximum voltage of shock delivered) and signs of anxiety.
• Interview - After the study, an unstructured interview was carried out using open-ended questions about how the participants felt about obeying authority.

Variables

The main measured variable was the maximum voltage of shock administered before the participant refused to go any further. There were 30 switches (ranging from 15 to 450 volts). Participants were classed as 'defiant' if they stopped before 450 volts.

Sample

• Size and demographics - 40 men, all aged 20–50 years, from New Haven, United States of America, from a variety of manual and professional occupations.
• Sampling technique - Self-selected via newspaper and direct mail advertisements. Volunteers were paid $4.50.

Procedure of Milgram's study

The experiment was designed to create a realistic scenario of authority and obedience. Participants believed they were part of a study on punishment and learning, but it actually measured obedience.

Key steps in the procedure

1. Participants arrived at Yale University and were introduced to the experimenter and another 'participant' named Mr Wallace, who were both confederates of the study.
2. A rigged lottery was used to decide who would be 'teacher' and 'learner'. The real participant was always the teacher.
3. The teacher and learner were taken to an adjoining room. The learner was strapped to a chair and electrodes were attached to their wrists.
4. The teacher was taken to an adjoining room and seated in front of a shock machine. The teacher received a sample shock of 45 V.
5. The experimenter remained in the same room as the teacher throughout the test.
6. The learning task involved the learner memorising word pairs. Participants read word-pairs to the learner and then read the first word of a word pair with four options.
7. The experimenter instructed the teacher to administer a shock when the learner gave an incorrect answer. They were told to increase the voltage each time (by 15 V).
8. If the teacher hesitated, the experimenter used four standardised prods: "Please continue," "The experiment requires that you continue," "It's absolutely essential that you continue," and "You have no other choice; you must go on."
9. A thorough debrief was given at the end of the study, and the teacher and learner were reunited and interviewed about the experience.

Controls in the procedure

• All participants drew lots, the same prods were given and the same word pair task was used.
• All participants heard the learner supposedly pounding on the wall in protest at 300 volts and 315 volts.

Ethical issues in Milgram's study

Ethics in psychological research involve protecting participants from harm. Milgram's study raised several concerns, though he attempted to address some.

Key ethical issues

• Deception - Participants were deceived when they were told the aim of the research was learning and memory, and into believing the learner was another participant and the electric shocks were real.
• Right to withdraw - The prods used by the experimenter prevented participants from leaving the study.
• Protection from harm - Three participants had seizures and the majority showed signs of intense distress.
• Debriefing - Milgram thoroughly debriefed his participants, revealing that the experimenter and learner were confederates. The learner reassured the participant that he was completely unharmed.

Results of Milgram's study

Milgram collected both quantitative data (numerical measures) and qualitative data (descriptive observations) to understand obedience levels.

Quantitative results

• 65% (26 out of 40) participants administered the maximum 450 V.
• 100% (all 40) went up to 300 V.

Qualitative results

• Participants displayed extreme tension, including sweating, trembling, biting lip, etc.
• Fourteen participants showed signs of nervous laughter and smiling.
• Three participants had seizures.

Conclusions from Milgram's study

The findings showed that participants were willing to oppose their moral values to obey an authority figure, even when it meant harming another person. Following destructive orders caused emotional strain on the participants.

Evaluation of Milgram's study

Evaluating a study involves assessing its strengths and weaknesses in terms of reliability, validity, and generalisability.

Issues and debates in Milgram's study

Psychological debates often contrast individual explanations (personal traits) with situational explanations (environmental factors) for behaviour.

Individual and situational explanations

• Individual explanation - Only 65 per cent obeyed to the maximum voltage, supporting an individual explanation of obedience; 35 per cent were defiant and resisted the experimenter's prods to continue causing harm. This suggests personal factors were responsible for their resistance.
• Situational explanation - Situational factors, such as the location of the experiment (Yale University), resulted in all 40 participants giving 300 V.

Application of Milgram's study to everyday life

The findings can be used to educate people to resist authority in cases of destructive obedience. Training programmes have been developed for soldiers in some armies to highlight the importance of resisting orders on moral grounds.