Key assumptions of the learning approach

The learning approach in psychology focuses on how behaviours develop through interactions with the environment. This perspective views individuals as starting with no innate behaviours, emphasising the role of external influences in shaping actions.

Main assumptions

• Blank slate at birth - People begin life without predetermined behaviours, often described as a 'tabula rasa'. This means all behaviours result from experiences and environmental interactions, which can be directly observed and measured.
• Learning through conditioning and observation - Behaviours are acquired via processes such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. These processes follow a stimulus-response model.

Social learning theory and aggression

Social learning theory explains how people acquire new behaviours by watching and imitating others, without needing direct experience or reinforcement. This theory is central to understanding how aggressive behaviours can spread in society.

Key concepts in social learning theory

• Observational learning - Individuals learn behaviours by observing others. This can happen spontaneously through exposure to models.
• Model and modelling - A model is the person whose behaviour is observed. Modelling occurs when the observer imitates that behaviour.
• Vicarious reinforcement - Observing a model being rewarded (or punished) for a behaviour can increase (or decrease) the likelihood of imitation.
• Stages of observational learning - This process involves four steps: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Understanding aggression

Aggression refers to any act intended to harm another person, which can be physical or verbal. Social learning theory suggests aggression is not innate but learned by observing and imitating aggressive models in the environment.

Background and aims of Bandura's study

Bandura's research built on earlier findings that children copy behaviours they see, but it explored whether this imitation persists without the model present and in new situations. It also considered how the sex of the model and child might influence imitation, based on prior studies showing parents reinforce 'sex-appropriate' behaviours.

Background context

Previous work indicated children imitate models when they are nearby, but Bandura questioned if this effect lasts in different settings. Research by Fauls and Smith (1956) showed children are more likely to copy same-sex models due to reinforcement patterns, such as boys being encouraged to mimic male behaviours. Bandura aimed to test if aggressive acts would be imitated more from same-sex models, and if boys show more aggression overall than girls.

Aims of the study

Bandura's experiment investigated imitation of aggression through observation.

The specific aims were to determine:

• Whether children exposed to an aggressive model would show more aggressive acts than those exposed to a non-aggressive model.
• Whether children exposed to a non-aggressive model would display fewer aggressive acts than those with no model at all.
• Whether children would imitate aggressive acts more from same-sex models than opposite-sex ones.
• Whether boys would exhibit more aggressive acts than girls.

Methodology of Bandura's study

Bandura conducted a laboratory experiment to control variables and observe behaviours systematically. This method allowed for precise measurement of aggression in a structured environment.

Research method and design

The study used a laboratory experiment with a matched-participants design. Children were assessed for baseline aggression levels by an experimenter and nursery teacher using four five-point rating scales. They were then matched into groups of three with similar aggression scores. Within each group, children were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: aggressive model, non-aggressive model, or control (no model).

Participants

The sample consisted of 72 children (36 boys and 36 girls) aged between 37 and 69 months, with a mean age of 52 months. They attended the Stanford University nursery school. The sampling technique was not specified in the original article.

Data collection techniques

Observations were covert, non-participant, structured, and controlled. Children were watched through a one-way mirror. Time sampling divided the 20-minute session into 5-second intervals, creating 240 response units for scoring behaviours.

Variables

• Independent variables - These were manipulated to test effects: the model condition (aggressive, non-aggressive, or control with no model); sex of the model (same or opposite to the child); and sex of the child (male or female).
• Dependent variable - This measured the outcome: the number of behaviours in 240 units across categories like imitative aggression, partially imitative responses, and non-imitative aggression.

Controls

To ensure reliability, toys in the rooms were always positioned identically. The model's actions were scripted to be the same in order, timing, and duration. Two independent observers recorded data, with inter-rater reliability checked through correlations around 0.9.

Procedure of Bandura's study

The experiment unfolded in three distinct phases, designed to expose children to models and then test for imitation in a new context. This structure allowed researchers to isolate the effects of observation on behaviour.

Phase 1: Modelling

Each child played with potato prints and stickers in a room containing a five-foot inflatable Bobo doll and other toys.

An adult model was present and either:

• Behaved aggressively (hitting the doll with a mallet, punching, throwing, kicking, and using verbal phrases like 'sock it in the nose' or 'kick him').
• Behaved non-aggressively (playing quietly with a tinker toy set).
• Was absent (control group).

After 10 minutes, the child was moved to another room.

Phase 2: Mild aggression arousal

In the second room, the child was shown attractive toys like a fire engine, doll set, and spinning top. After two minutes, the experimenter said these were reserved for other children, creating mild frustration to arouse potential aggression. The child was then taken to a third room.

Phase 3: Test for delayed imitation

The third room had aggressive toys (e.g., mallet) and non-aggressive toys (e.g., tea set), plus a three-foot Bobo doll. The child was left alone for 20 minutes while observers recorded behaviours through the one-way mirror.

Ethical issues in Bandura's study

Ethical considerations are important in research involving children, as they may be more vulnerable. In this study, potential psychological harm arose from exposing children to aggression and provoking mild frustration, which could encourage imitative aggression. Confidentiality was maintained by not naming children, though the nursery school was identified.

Results of Bandura's study

The findings revealed clear patterns in how children imitated observed behaviours, with differences based on model type and sex.

Key results

• Children in the aggressive model condition showed significantly more imitation of physical and verbal aggression than children who saw the non-aggressive model or no model condition.
• Children in the non-aggressive model condition showed very little aggression.
• There was evidence of a same-sex effect for boys but not for girls. Boys imitated the male model more than the female model.
• Male models had a greater influence on behaviour than female models in both boys and girls.
• Boys imitated more physical aggression than girls.

Conclusions from Bandura's study

The study demonstrated that social learning theory applies to aggression. Observing aggressive models can lead to imitation in new settings, even without the model present. Aggressive behaviour of male models is more likely to be imitated than aggressive behaviour of female models.

Evaluation of Bandura's study

Evaluating the study involves assessing its strengths and weaknesses in terms of reliability, validity, and generalisability.

Strengths

• High reliability - Two independent observers recorded behaviours, with high inter-observer correlations (around 0.9), ensuring consistent data collection.
• Good validity - Matching participants on prior aggression levels controlled for individual differences, making results more attributable to the independent variables.

Weaknesses

• Limited generalisability - The sample was from a prestigious university nursery, potentially not representative of children from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds.
• Questionable validity - Only two models (stooges) were used, so imitation might stem from unique model traits rather than sex or aggression type.

Issues and debates in Bandura's study

Bandura's research raises broader questions about conducting studies with children and applying findings to real-world scenarios.

Use of children in psychological research

Children are more vulnerable to demand characteristics. In this study, they might have copied aggression believing it was what the experimenters wanted.

Application to everyday life

The findings suggest children should be exposed to friendly and prosocial role models so the findings can be applied to parenting and education of children. Additionally, TV networks should censor content or provide warnings to prevent children from viewing aggressive content in programmes.