Eysenck's personality theory and criminal behaviour

Hans Eysenck proposed a theory linking personality traits to criminal behaviour. He suggested that individuals possess inherent personality dimensions influenced by both genetics and environment, which can predispose them to certain behaviours, including criminal acts.

Personality dimensions in Eysenck's theory

• Neuroticism-stability - This dimension ranges from neurotic traits, such as anxiety and restlessness, to stability traits like calmness and emotional balance.
• Extraversion-introversion - Extraverts are typically sociable, impulsive, and assertive, while introverts are quiet, passive, and reserved.
• Psychoticism - Added later in Eysenck's research during the 1970s, this dimension measures a tendency towards aggression, hostility, and lack of empathy.

Linking personality to criminal behaviour

• Genetic and environmental influences - Eysenck argued that personality traits have a genetic basis, but environmental factors also shape how these traits manifest in behaviour.
• Specific predictors of criminality - High psychoticism is seen as a key indicator of criminal behaviour. For younger individuals, extraversion often correlates with offending, while in older individuals, neuroticism becomes a stronger predictor.
• Influence and limitations - Eysenck's theory is notable for integrating biological, psychological, and social perspectives. However, much of his research on criminal personality relied on self-report measures, which can lack reliability.

Cognitive approaches to offending behaviour

The cognitive approach focuses on how thought processes, distortions, and moral reasoning contribute to criminal behaviour.

Criminal thinking patterns by Yochelson and Samenow (1976)

• Method - A 14-year longitudinal study involved 255 male offenders from varied backgrounds, split into two groups: one from a secure hospital for those found not guilty due to mental illness, and another from a standard prison population. Participants underwent repeated interviews over the years.
• Results - Although only 30 completed the study, 52 common thinking patterns emerged among the offenders. These included criminal thinking patterns (e.g., fear and need for power), automatic thinking errors (e.g., lack of trust, impulsiveness, manipulativeness), and crime-related thinking errors (e.g., fantasising about criminal acts).
• Conclusions - Shared thinking patterns and errors are prevalent among criminals, though not unique to them, suggesting a higher likelihood of such traits in offenders.
• Evaluation - The absence of a control group reduces validity. The study focused solely on males, limiting generalisation to females. Its longitudinal nature adds ecological validity but makes replication challenging due to time and cost.

Cognitive distortions influencing behaviour

• Self-centredness - Offenders often prioritise their own needs over others.
• Minimisation - They may downplay the severity of their actions.
• Blaming others - Problems are attributed to external factors or people.
• Hostile attribution bias - A tendency to interpret others' actions as hostile or threatening.
• Supporting evidence - Research by Liau et al. (1998) compared male delinquents to a control group, finding higher levels of cognitive distortions in the delinquent group. However, such studies do not confirm whether distortions cause crime or result from it.

Moral reasoning and Kohlberg's stages

• Development of moral reasoning - Kohlberg proposed that moral understanding evolves through stages as individuals grow.
• Research method - Using moral dilemmas like the 'Heinz dilemma'—where a man steals drugs to save his dying wife—Kohlberg assessed reasoning behind decisions in a sample of 72 boys aged 10, 13, and 16.
• Levels of moral reasoning:
  1. Preconventional (self-focused) - Actions are judged by consequences like punishment or personal benefit, common in young children.
  2. Conventional (society-focused) - Behaviour aligns with social approval or laws to maintain order, typical of most adults.
  3. Postconventional (principle-focused) - Decisions are based on universal ethics or the greater good, regardless of societal rules.
• Criminality link - Some offenders show delayed moral development. Allen et al. (2001) found that criminals generally exhibit lower moral reasoning compared to non-criminals.
• Evaluation - Kohlberg's theory faces criticism for gender bias, as it was based on male participants and may overemphasise justice-oriented reasoning, as highlighted by Gilligan (1982).

Psychodynamic explanations of criminality

The psychodynamic approach suggests that criminal behaviour stems from unconscious processes and early childhood experiences.

Role of the superego in criminal behaviour

• Id, ego, and superego dynamics - Freud posited that the id drives instinctive urges, while the superego acts as a moral conscience. The ego balances the two, but imbalances can lead to criminality.
• Types of superego issues (Blackburn, 1993):
  • Weak superego - Often develops in the absence of a same-sex parent, leading to insufficient moral internalisation and fewer inhibitions against crime.
  • Deviant superego - Occurs when a same-sex parent exhibits immoral behaviour, resulting in a superego that tolerates criminal acts.
  • Over-harsh superego - An excessively strict superego causes intense guilt, potentially leading individuals to commit crimes to seek punishment and alleviate guilt.

Defence mechanisms and offending

• Displacement - Aggression from unconscious conflicts may be redirected towards inappropriate targets, resulting in violent behaviour, as noted by Englander (2007).
• Repression and denial - While most people can suppress harmful urges, offenders may fail to do so. A triggering event can release these repressed feelings, leading to antisocial acts.
• Evaluation of psychodynamic approach - Testing these theories is challenging due to their focus on unconscious processes. Data often comes from qualitative case studies, making generalisation difficult.

Sutherland's differential association theory and its implications

Developed by Edwin Sutherland in 1939, the differential association theory explains criminal behaviour as a learned process through interactions with others, particularly in close-knit groups.

Core principles of differential association theory

• Learned behaviour - Criminality is not innate but learned through social interactions.
• Influence of close groups - Learning is most effective in small, intimate groups where influence is strongest.
• Techniques and attitudes - Individuals acquire not only the methods of committing crimes but also the motivations and justifications for such actions.
• Perception of laws - Criminals assess whether behaviours are favourable or unfavourable based on legal and social norms.
• Exposure and impact - Repeated exposure to criminal behaviour, especially if rewarded, increases the likelihood of offending. The frequency, duration, priority (early life exposure), and intensity of these interactions are critical factors.
• Universal applicability - Anyone, regardless of age, gender, or background, can learn criminal behaviour through association.
• Cycle of reoffending - Time spent in prison with other offenders can reinforce criminal learning, explaining why minor offenders often reoffend with more serious crimes after release.

Evaluation of differential association theory

• Applies to diverse groups - Not limited to specific demographics like youth or lower classes.
• Supported by research - Short (1955) found a correlation between delinquent behaviour and association with delinquents among school children using self-reported data.
• Fails to account for individual differences - Not everyone is equally influenced by their environment.
• Difficult to test objectively - Challenges in measuring attitudes towards law and crime.