The behavioural model of abnormality and learning phobias

The behavioural model of abnormality suggests that all behaviours, including phobias, are learned through specific processes. Phobias develop through mechanisms such as classical and operant conditioning.

Learning phobias through classical conditioning

• Classical conditioning occurs when a natural fear response becomes linked to a previously neutral stimulus.
• For instance, a loud bang (unconditioned stimulus; UCS) naturally causes fear (unconditioned response; UCR).
• If this bang is repeatedly paired with seeing a dog (conditioned stimulus; CS), eventually the sight of a dog alone can trigger fear (conditioned response; CR).
• The fear can become generalised and extend to similar stimuli.
• A well-known study by Watson and Rayner (1920) demonstrated this with Little Albert, who developed a fear of white rats after conditioning and later showed fear towards other fluffy white objects.

Learning through operant conditioning

• Operant conditioning involves learning from the outcomes of behaviours.
• Actions leading to positive outcomes, through positive reinforcement (a reward) or negative reinforcement (removing something unpleasant), are likely to be repeated.
• Conversely, actions with negative outcomes (punishment) are avoided.
• This process plays a significant part in maintaining phobias, as avoiding the feared stimulus reduces anxiety, acting as negative reinforcement.

The two-process model of phobia development and maintenance

The two-process model, proposed by Mowrer in 1947, explains how phobias are both initiated and sustained through a combination of classical and operant conditioning.

How phobias are initiated and sustained

• Initiation via classical conditioning: - Phobias, particularly specific ones, often begin through classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a fear response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally causes fear.
• Maintenance via operant conditioning - Once a phobia is established, it is maintained through operant conditioning. The individual feels anxious when near the phobic stimulus and avoids it, which reduces anxiety and acts as negative reinforcement, reinforcing the avoidance behaviour.
• Extension to other phobias:
  • This model also accounts for the development of social phobia and agoraphobia from specific phobias.
  • Anxiety about experiencing a panic attack in social settings or open spaces, due to the original phobia, leads to avoidance of these situations.
  • However, social phobia and agoraphobia can also arise independently through classical conditioning if a distressing event is paired with such environments.

Strengths and weaknesses of the behavioural explanation of phobias

The behavioural explanation offers valuable insights into the development of phobias, supported by research, but it also faces certain limitations.

Strengths of the behavioural explanation

• Evidence from real-life cases - Research by Barlow and Durand (1995) found that among individuals with a severe fear of driving, about half had experienced a car accident. This supports the idea that a traumatic event (UCS) can condition driving (CS) to provoke fear.
• Effectiveness of treatments - The success of behavioural therapies in treating phobias by altering responses to stimuli suggests that this approach addresses the root cause of the learned fear.

Weaknesses of the behavioural explanation

• Limited recall of traumatic events - A study by Davey (1992) revealed that only a small percentage (7%) of people with a fear of spiders could recall a specific distressing incident involving a spider, indicating other factors might contribute to phobia development.
• Potential for other influences - The lack of remembered trauma does not rule out classical conditioning but suggests alternative explanations, such as biological predispositions, could also play a role.

Behavioural therapies for treating phobias

Behavioural therapies aim to treat phobias by altering the learned fear response through classical conditioning principles. Two primary methods are used: systematic desensitisation and flooding.

Systematic desensitisation for phobia treatment

• Principle of counter-conditioning - This therapy works by teaching the individual to associate the phobic stimulus with relaxation instead of fear.
• Creating a fear hierarchy - The process begins with the patient listing feared situations from least to most anxiety-provoking, such as seeing a photo of a snake (least feared) to handling a snake (most feared).
• Learning relaxation techniques - Patients are taught methods like deep breathing to stay calm.
• Gradual exposure - Starting with the least feared situation, the patient imagines or encounters the stimulus while using relaxation techniques. If anxiety arises, the process pauses until calmness is achieved.
• Progression through hierarchy - This is repeated for each level of the hierarchy until the most feared situation is faced without fear, linking the stimulus solely with relaxation.
• Real-life application - Exposure can occur in real scenarios, not just imagination, such as looking at a real snake.

Flooding as a direct exposure method

• Immediate confrontation - Flooding involves exposing the patient directly to the phobic stimulus without gradual steps or relaxation techniques, either in reality or through visualisation. For instance, someone afraid of heights might visualise standing on a tall building.
• Sustained exposure - The patient remains in the situation until the initial anxiety diminishes, realising no harm occurs, which helps extinguish the fear response.

Advantages of behavioural therapies

• High effectiveness for specific phobias - Research by Zimbarg et al. (1992) indicates that systematic desensitisation is among the most successful methods for treating specific phobias.
• Rapid results - Studies like Ost et al. (1991) show that a single session of therapy can reduce anxiety in 90% of patients with specific phobias.

Disadvantages of behavioural therapies

• Ethical concerns - Flooding, in particular, raises ethical issues due to the intense anxiety it causes. If patients withdraw before the fear is fully addressed, their anxiety might worsen.
• Symptom-focused approach - These therapies target the symptoms rather than underlying causes, unlike other approaches such as cognitive behavioural therapy, which aim to address deeper psychological roots.