3.2 - Hitler’s Rise to Power, 1933–1934 - notes
3.2 - Hitler’s Rise to Power, 1933–1934
Key facts and dates
Hitler's ascent to absolute power between 1933 and 1934 was a swift and calculated process, transforming Germany from a fragile democracy into a totalitarian dictatorship. This timeline captures the critical events that marked his rise and the establishment of Nazi control.
Timeline of key events
- 30 January 1933 – Hitler appointed Chancellor in a coalition government.
- 27 February 1933 – Reichstag Fire provides pretext for emergency measures.
- 28 February 1933 – Decree for the Protection of People and State suspends civil liberties.
- 5 March 1933 – Election sees Nazis win 43.9% of votes amid intimidation.
- 24 March 1933 – Enabling Act grants Hitler dictatorial powers.
- 30 June 1934 – Night of the Long Knives eliminates SA leaders and rivals.
- 2 August 1934 – Death of Hindenburg; Hitler merges Chancellor and President roles as Führer.
Hitler's appointment as Chancellor and the role of conservative elites
In early 1933, Germany's political landscape was deeply unstable, with the Weimar Republic struggling under economic hardship and political fragmentation. Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party), capitalised on this chaos, but his appointment as Chancellor was not a direct result of electoral dominance. Instead, it stemmed from the miscalculations of conservative elites who believed they could manipulate him.
The political manoeuvring behind Hitler's appointment
- Conservative elites' strategy - Figures like Franz von Papen, a former Chancellor, and Alfred Hugenberg, a nationalist media mogul and leader of the German National People's Party (DNVP), sought to harness the Nazi Party's mass support to advance their own anti-democratic goals. They believed Hitler could be controlled as a figurehead.
- Coalition government formation - On 30 January 1933, after intense backroom negotiations, President Paul von Hindenburg reluctantly appointed Hitler as Chancellor. The Nazis held only three cabinet posts in a coalition dominated by conservative allies, reinforcing the illusion of control.
- Miscalculation of influence - These elites underestimated Hitler's political cunning and the Nazis' determination to seize power, assuming they could limit his influence while benefiting from his popular appeal. This misjudgement paved the way for rapid Nazi dominance.
The rapid seizure of power through key events in 1933
Once appointed, Hitler moved swiftly to dismantle democratic structures and consolidate control. Within months, a series of pivotal events allowed the Nazis to suppress opposition and gain legislative power, exploiting both legal mechanisms and brute force.
Key steps in seizing control
- Reichstag Fire (27 February 1933) - A mysterious fire at the German parliament building was blamed on communists, creating a climate of fear. This event provided Hitler with a pretext to push for emergency powers.
- Decree for the Protection of People and State (28 February 1933) - Issued in response to the Reichstag Fire, this decree suspended key civil liberties such as freedom of speech, press, and assembly. It allowed indefinite detention without trial, effectively legalising repression of political opponents.
- March 1933 election (5 March 1933) - Held under intense Nazi intimidation by the SA (Sturmabteilung, the Nazi paramilitary wing), the election saw the Nazis win 43.9% of the vote. Though not a majority, this result, combined with nationalist allies, gave them significant influence in the Reichstag.
- Enabling Act (24 March 1933) - Officially titled the 'Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich', this act allowed Hitler to pass laws without parliamentary approval, even if they deviated from the constitution. Passed under coercion, with SA members threatening opposition deputies, it granted him dictatorial powers and marked the effective end of Weimar democracy.
The process of Gleichschaltung and the destruction of opposition
With emergency powers secured, Hitler initiated a process known as Gleichschaltung, a German term meaning 'coordination' or 'bringing into line'. This policy aimed to align all aspects of German society with Nazi ideology, eliminating any independent or opposing forces.
Key elements of Gleichschaltung
- Banning opposition parties - By July 1933, all political parties except the Nazi Party were outlawed. The Communist Party (KPD) and Social Democratic Party (SPD) were primary targets, with leaders arrested or forced into exile.
- Dissolving trade unions - Independent trade unions, a stronghold of worker resistance, were abolished in May 1933. They were replaced by the Nazi-controlled German Labour Front (DAF), ensuring workers could not organise against the regime.
- Subordinating state governments - Regional governments in Germany's federal states (Länder) were stripped of autonomy, with Nazi governors appointed to enforce central control, dismantling local opposition.
- Eliminating independent institutions - Professional organisations, cultural bodies, and the judiciary were brought under Nazi influence. Independent press and religious autonomy were curtailed, aligning all sectors with party doctrine.
The Night of the Long Knives and consolidation of power
By mid-1934, Hitler faced internal and external challenges to his authority, particularly from within his own ranks. The Night of the Long Knives was a brutal purge that eliminated potential rivals and secured crucial alliances, marking a turning point in his consolidation of power.
Events and impact of the purge
- Targeting the SA leadership (30 June 1934) - The SA, led by Ernst Röhm, had grown into a powerful and unruly force of over two million men, demanding radical social reforms and a 'second revolution'. Hitler, fearing their influence and seeking to placate the regular army (Reichswehr), ordered the SS (Schutzstaffel, elite Nazi guards) to execute Röhm and other SA leaders.
- Elimination of conservative opponents - The purge extended beyond the SA, targeting conservative critics like former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher. This demonstrated Hitler's willingness to remove any threat, regardless of political alignment.
- Securing army support - By dismantling the SA, Hitler reassured the Reichswehr, which viewed the paramilitary group as a rival. In return, the army became more amenable to Nazi control, a critical factor in stabilising his regime.
The final steps to dictatorship after Hindenburg's death
The death of President Hindenburg in August 1934 provided Hitler with the opportunity to complete his transformation into an absolute dictator. This event removed the last significant check on his power and formalised his total control over Germany.
Establishment of the Führer role
- Merger of roles (2 August 1934) - Following Hindenburg's death, Hitler combined the positions of Chancellor and President into a single role, declaring himself Führer und Reichskanzler (Leader and Reich Chancellor). This move was confirmed by a public plebiscite, showcasing apparent widespread support.
- Personal oath of loyalty - Army personnel and civil servants were required to swear a personal oath of allegiance to Hitler, not to the state or constitution. This ensured direct loyalty to him, embedding his authority within key institutions.
- End of legal constraints - With no presidential oversight and the Enabling Act still in effect, Hitler faced no legal or institutional barriers, completing the destruction of democratic governance in under two years.
Assessing the establishment of dictatorship
The speed with which Hitler transformed Germany from a democracy to a dictatorship, often termed a 'legal revolution', was remarkable. This process relied on a combination of factors that enabled the Nazis to dismantle opposition and entrench power with little effective resistance.
Factors behind the rapid destruction of democracy
- Elite complicity - Conservative elites, seeking to use Hitler for their own ends, facilitated his rise by appointing him Chancellor and initially supporting repressive measures, only to lose control.
- Public acquiescence - Many Germans, disillusioned by Weimar's failures and economic crises, accepted or passively supported Nazi policies, especially when presented as restoring order and national pride.
- Use of terror - The SA and later SS employed violence and intimidation to suppress dissent, creating a climate of fear that deterred opposition, evident in events like the Reichstag Fire response and election coercion.
- Political skill - Hitler's strategic timing, exploitation of crises, and manipulation of legal frameworks (like the Enabling Act) demonstrated his ability to outmanoeuvre rivals and consolidate power systematically.